Hello students! Today we’re going to study about an imp topic from our history syllabus. These notes will help you understand the social conditions and reforms that happened about 200 years ago in India.
1. Introduction
In India of 200 years ago, society was very different from what we see today. Women and lower castes faced many difficulties and restrictions. Let’s understand what problems existed:
Women faced many restrictions like:
- No education for girls
- Marriage at very young age
- No rights to property
- Hindu and Muslim men could marry multiple wives
- Widow burning (sati) was considered good
- People believed educating women would make them widows!
Society was divided based on caste:
- Brahmans and Kshatriyas were considered “upper castes”
- Vaishyas and Shudras were below them
- “Untouchables” faced worst discrimination
- They couldn’t enter temples or use wells of upper castes
During 19th and 20th centuries, things started changing slowly when reformers began to challenge these unfair practices.
2. Social Structure and Inequalities
Society in those days was deeply divided based on gender and caste. These divisions created many inequalities:
For women:
- They were limited to household work
- Child marriage was very common
- Widows were treated very badly and encouraged to perform sati
- Women couldn’t own property in most cases
- Very few women got education
For caste divisions:
- Brahmans (priests) and Kshatriyas (warriors) had highest status
- Vaishyas (traders) and Shudras (artisans) were below them
- Untouchables did jobs considered “polluting” like cleaning, leather work
- They couldn’t enter temples or use water sources of upper castes
- They faced insult and humiliation daily
3. Rise of Social Reform
In early 19th century, something important happened – new ideas started spreading:
- Books and newspapers started getting printed
- More people could read and write
- People could share their views on social, political and religious issues
- Reformers started movements for change
- They argued against harmful customs
- They tried to convince people to adopt new ways of life
- Many reformers used ancient texts to show that some practices were not actually part of original tradition
4. Women’s Reforms
Reformers worked hard to improve the condition of women:
4.1. Abolition of Sati
Raja Rammohun Roy was an imp reformer who fought against sati:
- He founded Brahmo Sabha (later Brahmo Samaj)
- He showed that sati had no basis in ancient Hindu texts
- He knew many languages like Sanskrit and Persian which helped him make strong arguments
- British officials supported his views
- Finally, sati was banned in 1829
4.2. Widow Remarriage
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar worked for widow remarriage:
- He used ancient texts to support his arguments
- Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856
- Veerasalingam Pantulu formed association in Madras
- Dayanand Saraswati’s Arya Samaj also supported widow remarriage
- Bombay reformers also worked for this cause
But the results were not very successful:
- Very few widows actually remarried
- Conservative groups opposed these changes
- Many reformers faced social boycott
4.3. Girls’ Education
Reformers believed education was necessary to improve women’s status:
- Vidyasagar set up schools for girls in Calcutta
- Bombay reformers established girls’ schools
- Arya Samaj opened schools in Punjab
- Jyotirao Phule started schools for girls in Maharashtra
But there was lot of opposition:
- Many people feared schools would make girls “corrupt”
- People believed girls should focus on household duties
- Most educated women were taught at home, not in schools
Some brave women fought for education:
- Rashsundari Debi learned to read secretly
- Muslim women in North India studied Koran at home
- Mumtaz Ali reinterpreted Koran to support women’s education
- Urdu novels encouraged women to read
- Begums of Bhopal started girls’ school in Aligarh
- Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain opened schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta
4.4. Women’s Writings and Activism
Women themselves started writing about their problems:
- Tarabai Shinde published book called “Stripurush Tulna”
- She criticized how society treated men and women differently
- Pandita Ramabai wrote about upper-caste women’s difficulties
- She started a widows’ home in Poona
- She trained widows to become independent
Women also became politically active:
- They formed associations and groups
- They demanded voting rights and better education
- In 1920s, they joined nationalist and socialist movements
- Leaders like Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose supported women’s equality
4.5. Child Marriage Reform
Women’s organisations strengthened reform efforts:
- They challenged child marriage customs
- Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1929
- It set minimum age for marriage at 16 for women and 18 for men
- Later it was raised to 18 for women and 21 for men
- This reform faced less opposition compared to earlier reforms
5. Caste Reforms
Reformers also challenged caste inequalities:
- Initially, many upper-caste reformers led these efforts
- Later, lower caste and non-Brahman leaders emerged
- They fought for equality, justice and self-respect
5.1. Upper-Caste Reform Efforts
Some upper-caste reformers worked against caste system:
- Rammohun Roy translated Buddhist texts that opposed caste
- Prarthana Samaj believed all humans were spiritually equal
- Paramhans Mandali worked to abolish caste
- They broke caste rules in their secret meetings
- Christian missionaries established schools for lower castes
- They provided education for tribal and lower-caste children
5.2. Opportunities for Lower Castes
New opportunities emerged for lower castes during British period:
- Cities created new jobs like coolies, sweepers, builders
- Many migrated to tea plantations in Assam or other colonies like Mauritius
- This helped them escape upper-caste control in villages
- Army offered jobs (like in Mahar Regiment)
- During World War I, leatherworkers made good money supplying shoes
- Their economic status improved and they faced less prejudice
5.3. Lower-Caste Movements
Lower castes started organizing themselves:
- Satnami movement led by Ghasidas improved status of leatherworkers
- Matua sect led by Haridas Thakur worked among Chandalas
- They questioned Brahmanical texts that supported caste system
- Shri Narayana Guru promoted unity in Kerala
- His famous saying was “one caste, one religion, one god for humankind”
5.4. Jyotirao Phule’s Contributions
Jyotirao Phule was an imp lower-caste leader:
- He studied in missionary schools
- He challenged Brahman claims of superiority
- He said Aryans were actually foreign invaders
- He claimed indigenous people were true owners of the land
- He said pre-Aryan society was just and fair
- He started Satyashodhak Samaj to promote caste equality
- He urged Shudras and Ati Shudras to unite
- He wrote book “Gulamgiri” comparing caste to slavery
- He dedicated his book to American anti-slavery movement
- He criticized upper-caste nationalism
- He warned lower castes against false unity with Brahmans
5.5. B.R. Ambedkar’s Efforts
Ambedkar was born in Mahar caste and faced discrimination:
- He had to sit outside classroom
- He wasn’t allowed to drink water from common taps
- He studied in USA and returned in 1919
- He wrote about upper-caste dominance
- From 1927 to 1935, he led temple entry movements
- His aim was to expose caste prejudices
- He fought for equality and end of casteism
5.6. Non-Brahman Movement
Non-Brahman castes gained education and wealth:
- They challenged Brahman dominance
- E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar) led Self Respect Movement
- He left Congress party when they had caste-based seating
- He said untouchables preserved original Dravidian culture
- He criticized Hindu scriptures like Codes of Manu
- He said religions just justified inequality
- He asked untouchables to reject all religions
Orthodox Hindus formed Sanatan Dharma Sabhas to defend caste system, claiming it was essential to Hinduism.
6. Imp Reform Organisations
Many organisations worked for social reform:
- Brahmo Samaj (founded 1830):
- Opposed idol worship
- Believed in Upanishads
- Criticized rigid religious practices
- Young Bengal Movement (led by Derozio):
- Promoted radical ideas
- Encouraged questioning authority
- Supported women’s education
- Ramakrishna Mission (inspired by Vivekananda):
- Focused on service to society
- Promoted nationalism
- Emphasized spiritual unity
- Prarthana Samaj (founded 1867):
- Worked for caste and marriage reforms
- Drew ideas from Hindu, Buddhist and Christian texts
- Veda Samaj (established 1864):
- Abolished caste distinctions
- Promoted women’s education
- Believed in one God
- Aligarh Movement (led by Sayyid Ahmed Khan):
- Offered modern education
- Founded Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College
- Singh Sabha Movement (started 1873):
- Reformed Sikhism
- Removed superstitious practices
- Promoted education
7. Questions and Answers
What social ideas did the following people support:
| Reformer | Ideas Supported |
|---|---|
| Rammohun Roy | Abolition of sati, women’s education, caste equality |
| Dayanand Saraswati | Widow remarriage, caste reform through Arya Samaj |
| Veerasalingam Pantulu | Widow remarriage in Madras Presidency |
| Jyotirao Phule | Caste equality, education for lower castes, women’s rights |
| Pandita Ramabai | Women’s education, economic independence for widows |
| Periyar | Caste equality, women’s rights, rejection of oppressive religions |
| Mumtaz Ali | Women’s education through reinterpretation of Koran |
| Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar | Widow remarriage, girls’ education |
True or False:
- When the British captured Bengal, they framed many new laws to regulate marriage, adoption, inheritance of property, etc. – FALSE (British didn’t frame many new laws immediately after capturing Bengal)
- Social reformers had to discard ancient texts to argue for reform in social practices – FALSE (Reformers actually used ancient texts to support their arguments)
- Reformers got full support from all sections of people – FALSE (Reformers faced strong opposition from conservative groups)
- The Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1829 – FALSE (It was passed in 1929, not 1829)
How did knowledge of ancient texts help reformers promote new laws?
Knowledge of ancient texts was very helpful for reformers because:
- They could show that harmful practices like sati were not part of original tradition
- They could find verses that supported widow remarriage
- These arguments convinced British officials to support reforms
- It helped them persuade society that they weren’t introducing foreign ideas
- This approach led to important laws like ban on sati (1829) and Widow Remarriage Act (1856)
What were different reasons people had for not sending girls to school?
People gave many reasons for not sending girls to school:
- They feared education would take girls away from household duties
- They believed schools would “corrupt” girls by exposing them to public spaces
- Some thought educated girls would become widows
- Many believed girls should stay confined at home
- They thought domestic skills were more important than reading and writing
Why were Christian missionaries attacked by many people? Would some people have supported them too? If so, for what reasons?
Christian missionaries were attacked because:
- People thought they were trying to convert Indians to Christianity
- They seemed to threaten traditional religious practices
- Their Western education was seen as dangerous to Indian culture
But some people supported missionaries because:
- They provided education to lower castes and tribal groups
- They offered opportunities that traditional society denied
- Their schools helped people gain skills for new jobs
- They challenged oppressive social practices
- Lower castes saw them as path to social mobility
In British period, what new opportunities opened up for people from “low” castes?
During British period, lower castes got new opportunities like:
- Jobs in cities as coolies, sweepers, and construction workers
- Work in tea plantations in Assam
- Migration to other colonies like Mauritius for work
- Employment in army (like Mahar Regiment)
- During World War I, leatherworkers made good profit by supplying shoes
- These opportunities helped them escape upper-caste control in villages
How did Jyotirao and other reformers justify their criticism of caste inequality?
Jyotirao Phule and other reformers justified their criticism by:
- Arguing that Brahmans were actually foreign Aryan invaders
- Claiming that indigenous people were the true owners of land
- Showing that ancient texts did not support discrimination
- Pointing out that pre-Aryan society was more equal
- Arguing that all humans were created equal (like Shri Narayana Guru’s idea of “one caste”)
- Forming organisations like Satyashodhak Samaj to promote equality
Why did Phule dedicate his book Gulamgiri to American movement to free slaves?
Phule dedicated his book to American anti-slavery movement because:
- He saw similarities between caste oppression and slavery
- He wanted to show that lower castes in India were like slaves
- He was inspired by anti-slavery struggle in America
- He wanted to create similar movement against “caste slavery” in India
- He believed both systems were unjust and needed to be abolished
What did Ambedkar want to achieve through temple entry movement?
Through temple entry movement, Ambedkar wanted to:
- Show how deeply caste prejudices affected society
- Challenge the exclusion of Dalits from sacred spaces
- Fight for equal social rights
- Expose hypocrisy in religious practices
- Create public awareness about discrimination
- His movements from 1927 to 1935 highlighted these issues
Why were Jyotirao Phule and Ramaswamy Naicker critical of national movement? Did their criticism help national struggle?
They were critical because:
- They felt national movement was dominated by upper castes
- They believed upper-caste leaders ignored lower-caste problems
- They saw nationalism as a way for Brahmans to maintain power
- They felt true liberation needed social equality first
Their criticism actually helped national struggle by:
- Forcing upper-caste nationalists to think about caste issues
- Broadening the idea of freedom to include social equality
- Bringing marginalized groups into political discussions
- Creating pressure for more inclusive national movement
- Leading to reforms that strengthened overall struggle against British
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