1. Introduction
This chapter explores the British education policies in India and how they tried to civilising the Indian population by changing their customs. The British wanted to make Indians into “good subjects” who would be loyal to their rule. There were many debates about how to educate and civilise Indians, and these ideas evolved over 200 years of British rule. Indians didn’t just accept these policies passively – they reacted and developed their own views on education. In this way, education in colonial India was shaped by both British and Indian thinkers.
2. British Views on Education
The British believed they had a cultural mission in India. They thought many Indian customs needed reform and debated about the best methods to educate Indians:
• Some British officials respected ancient Indian culture
• Others pushed strongly for Western education
• Education policies kept changing over time
• British aimed to align education with their colonial goals
3. Orientalism and Its Advocates
Orientalists were British scholars who respected and studied Indian culture:
• William Jones arrived in Calcutta in 1783
• He was a linguist who studied Sanskrit with pandits
• Explored ancient Indian texts on various subjects
• Shared his interests with Henry Thomas Colebrooke
• Founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal
• Started a journal called Asiatick Researches
Their Beliefs: • Indian civilisation had declined from its ancient glory
• Sacred and legal texts revealed true Hindu and Muslim ideas
• British could help revive Indian heritage
• Indian learning should be promoted over Western education
• Teaching Sanskrit and Persian literature was important
• Using familiar subjects would win Indian respect
Their Achievements: • Calcutta Madrasa was set up in 1781 to promote Arabic, Persian and Islamic law
• Hindu College was established in Benaras in 1791 to encourage study of ancient Sanskrit texts
4. Criticism of Orientalism
By the early 19th century, many British officials began criticizing the Orientalist approach:
• Critics called Eastern knowledge unscientific and full of errors
• James Mill attacked the Orientalist approach strongly
• He argued education should be practical and useful
• Rejected the idea of pleasing natives to win their loyalty
Thomas Babington Macaulay’s Views:
• Was a vocal critic of Orientalism
• Saw India as uncivilised and needing Western education
• Believed Eastern knowledge was inferior to English
• Argued English education would civilise Indians
• Said Indian languages lacked literary and scientific value
Impact:
• English Education Act of 1835 was introduced
• Made English the medium for higher education
• Stopped funding Oriental institutions
• Led to production of English textbooks for schools
5. Wood’s Despatch (1854)
This was an imp education policy document issued by Charles Wood:
• Emphasised benefits of European learning
• Said European knowledge aided trade and commerce
• Claimed it would change Indian tastes to demand British goods
• Believed it improved moral character
• Thought it produced honest and reliable civil servants
• Criticised Eastern literature for lacking sense of duty
Outcomes: • Led to establishment of education departments
• Set up universities in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay
• Reformed the school education system
• Focused on practical and economic benefits
6. Missionary Education
Christian missionaries had their own agenda for education in India:
• They pushed for moral education based on Christian values • Believed Christianity improved morality • East India Company opposed missionary work until 1813 • Company feared local backlash against British rule
Missionary Activities: • Set up Serampore Mission under Danish East India Company • Established a printing press in 1800 • Founded a college in 1818 • Missionary schools spread across India
After the 1857 revolt, the British became cautious about supporting missionaries as they feared attacks on local customs would anger Indians more.
7. Local Pathshalas
Pathshalas were traditional Indian schools found in Bengal and Bihar:
• William Adam reported on them in the 1830s
• Over 1 lakh pathshalas existed at that time
• Each had about 20 students
• Total students exceeded 20 lakh • Set up by wealthy people, communities, or gurus
Features of Pathshalas: • Had a flexible education system
• No fixed fees – based on parents’ income
• Teaching was oral and tailored to student needs
• No printed books, separate classes, or exams
• Classes held under trees, in shops, or temples
• Schedule suited local needs and paused during harvest season
• This system allowed even peasant children to study
8. Changes to Pathshalas
The British initially focused on higher education and allowed pathshalas to function independently. But after 1854, they tried to control and change these traditional schools:
• Aimed to regulate vernacular education
• Introduced strict routines, rules and inspections
• Appointed government pandits to oversee schools
• Each pandit managed four to five pathshalas
New Rules for Schools:
• Enforced regular timetables and textbook use
• Introduced annual exams and fixed fees
• Required fixed seats and discipline rules
• Government grants supported schools that followed these rules
Negative Impact:
• Independent pathshalas struggled to compete
• New rules demanded regular attendance
• Poor children missed school during harvest season
• Non-attendance was seen as indiscipline
• This reduced access to education for peasant children
9. Indian Perspectives on Education
Indians had their own debates about education from the early 19th century:
• Some supported Western education for modernisation.
• They urged British to open more schools and colleges.
• Others opposed Western education’s impact on Indian culture
• Many wanted a truly national education system • They aimed to preserve Indian culture and pride
Imp Indian thinkers on education included Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore.
10. Mahatma Gandhi’s Views
Gandhi was strongly critical of colonial education:
• Said it created a sense of inferiority among Indians
• Made Western civilisation seem superior
• Destroyed pride in Indian culture
• Called it sinful and enslaving for Indians
• Said it encouraged blind admiration for British rule
Gandhi’s Educational Vision: • Wanted education to restore dignity and self-respect
• Urged students to boycott British institutions
• Advocated Indian languages as medium of instruction
• Said English distanced Indians from their society
• Criticised focus on just reading and writing
• Valued practical knowledge and lived experience
• Believed education should develop mind and soul
• Promoted teaching handicrafts scientifically
• Saw literacy as a means, not an end in itself
11. Rabindranath Tagore’s Vision
Tagore founded Santiniketan in 1901 based on his educational philosophy:
• Hated rigid and oppressive schools as a child
• Found traditional schools like prisons that stifled creativity
• Wanted schools where children could be happy
Educational Principles: • Promoted freedom, creativity and self-learning
• Opposed British system’s strict discipline
• Believed teachers should understand children’s minds
• Encouraged curiosity and imagination in teaching
Santiniketan:
• Set up in a rural setting
• Called it an “abode of peace”
• Fostered learning in harmony with nature
• Combined Indian traditions with Western science
• Taught art, music and dance alongside technology
Tagore differed from Gandhi on Western elements – Gandhi rejected Western technology while Tagore embraced it.
12. National Education Debate
Nationalists sought to create a unique education system for India:
• Some wanted to expand the British system to include more people • Others proposed completely alternative national systems • All aimed to create a truly national culture • This debate continued even after independence • It involved defining what should be the essence of national education
13. Study Questions
Match the following:
- William Jones:
- Rabindranath Tagore:
- Thomas Macaulay:
- Mahatma Gandhi:
- Pathshalas:
State whether true or false:
- (a) James Mill was a severe critic of the Orientalists.
- (b) The 1854 Despatch on education was in favour of English being introduced as a medium of higher education in India.
- (c) Mahatma Gandhi thought that promotion of literacy was the most important aim of education.
- (d) Rabindranath Tagore felt that children ought to be subjected to strict discipline.
Answers:
Match the following:
- William Jones: respect for ancient cultures
- Rabindranath Tagore: learning in a natural environment
- Thomas Macaulay: promotion of English education
- Mahatma Gandhi: critical of English education
- Pathshalas: gurus
True or False:
- (a) True. James Mill strongly attacked the Orientalist approach and argued for practical Western education over promoting Indian learning.
- (b) True. Wood’s Despatch of 1854 emphasised European learning and supported English as the medium for higher education.
- (c) False. Gandhi believed education should develop the mind and soul through practical knowledge and handicrafts, not just focus on literacy.
- (d) False. Tagore strongly opposed strict discipline and advocated for a free, creative learning environment.
1. Why did William Jones feel the need to study Indian history, philosophy and law?
William Jones felt the need to study Indian history, philosophy and law because he wanted to understand India’s ancient civilisation properly. He believed that by studying sacred and legal texts, the British could discover the true Hindu and Muslim ideas and customs. Jones thought Indian civilisation had declined from its ancient glory and that the British could help revive this heritage.
His studies were meant to help British officials learn about Indian culture so they could govern more effectively. By understanding Indian traditions, he believed the British could win respect from locals and rule in a way that aligned with Indian values.
2. Why did James Mill and Thomas Macaulay think that European education was essential in India?
James Mill and Thomas Macaulay believed European education was essential in India because they considered Eastern knowledge to be unscientific, erroneous and inferior. They argued that Western education would civilise Indians and teach them practical and useful skills. Macaulay specifically believed that Indian languages lacked literary and scientific value compared to English. They thought European education would align Indians with British values and economic goals.
Mill rejected the idea of pleasing natives to win loyalty and instead wanted to transform Indian minds through Western education. Both believed this approach would make Indians more productive subjects while creating demand for British goods and producing reliable civil servants for colonial administration.
3. Why did Mahatma Gandhi want to teach children handicrafts?
Mahatma Gandhi wanted to teach children handicrafts because he believed this would develop both their mind and soul, not just book knowledge. He valued practical skills and lived experience over mere reading and writing. Gandhi believed that by learning handicrafts, children could produce something useful from the very start of their training, making education immediately productive. He advocated teaching these skills scientifically so students would understand the principles behind the crafts, not just the techniques.
For Gandhi, handicrafts fostered self-reliance and dignity of labour – qualities he thought were essential for Indians to overcome colonial subjugation. This approach contrasted with the British system’s focus on literary education, which Gandhi felt disconnected Indians from practical realities.
4. Why did Mahatma Gandhi think that English education had enslaved Indians?
Mahatma Gandhi thought English education had enslaved Indians because it created a sense of inferiority among them. The colonial education system made Western civilisation seem superior while destroying pride in Indian culture and traditions. Gandhi believed that education in English distanced Indians from their own society and the masses. It encouraged blind admiration for British rule and institutions, making Indians mentally dependent on foreign ideas and values. He called this education “sinful” because it undermined Indian dignity and self-respect.
For Gandhi, true freedom required not just political independence but mental decolonisation, which couldn’t happen as long as Indians remained tied to an education system designed to serve colonial interests. That’s why he asked students to boycott British institutions and advocated for education in Indian languages.
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