Living organisms require food for development, growth and health. India’s growing population of over one billion people demands more than a quarter billion tonnes of grain annually. Since cultivable land cannot be expanded significantly, increasing production efficiency through sustainable practices in agriculture and animal husbandry becomes essential while maintaining environmental balance.
12.1 Improvement in Crop Yields
Food Sources from Different Crops
Cereals (wheat, rice, maize, millets, sorghum) provide carbohydrates for energy requirements.
Pulses (gram/chana, pea/matar, black gram/urad, green gram/moong, pigeon pea/arhar, lentil/masoor) supply proteins.
Oil seeds (soyabean, groundnut, sesame, castor, mustard, linseed, sunflower) provide necessary fats.
Vegetables, spices and fruits offer vitamins, minerals and small amounts of proteins, carbohydrates and fats.
Fodder crops (berseem, oats, sudan grass) are raised as food for livestock.
Question 1: What do we get from cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables?
- Cereals provide carbohydrates for energy
- Pulses provide proteins
- Fruits and vegetables provide vitamins, minerals and small amounts of proteins, carbohydrates and fats
Crop Seasons in India
Different crops require different climatic conditions, temperature and photoperiods for growth and completion of life cycle. Photoperiods relate to sunlight duration, which affects plant growth and flowering through photosynthesis.
Kharif Season (June to October – rainy season):
- Paddy
- Soyabean
- Pigeon pea
- Maize
- Cotton
- Green gram
- Black gram
Rabi Season (November to April – winter season):
- Wheat
- Gram
- Peas
- Mustard
- Linseed
Production Increase Achievement
India achieved four times increase in food grain production from 1952 to 2010 with only 25% increase in cultivable land area through three main farming stages:
- Choice of seeds for planting
- Nurturing of crop plants
- Protection of growing and harvested crops from loss
Major Groups of Activities for Improving Crop Yields
- Crop variety improvement
- Crop production improvement
- Crop protection management
12.1.1 Crop Variety Improvement
This approach focuses on finding crop varieties that can give good yields. Varieties or strains are selected by breeding for various useful characteristics.
Hybridisation Methods
Hybridisation involves crossing between genetically dissimilar plants:
Intervarietal: Between different varieties
Interspecific: Between two different species of the same genus
Intergeneric: Between different genera
Another improvement method involves introducing genes that provide desired characteristics, resulting in genetically modified crops.
Requirements for New Varieties
- Must produce high yields under different conditions found in different areas
- Seeds should all be of same variety
- Seeds should germinate under same conditions
- Must be adapted to diverse climatic conditions
- Should be tolerant to high soil salinity
Factors for Variety Improvement
Higher Yield: To increase productivity of crop per acre.
Improved Quality: Quality considerations vary from crop to crop:
- Baking quality in wheat
- Protein quality in pulses
- Oil quality in oilseeds
- Preserving quality in fruits and vegetables
Biotic and Abiotic Resistance:
- Biotic stresses include diseases, insects and nematodes
- Abiotic stresses include drought, salinity, water logging, heat, cold and frost
- Resistant varieties can improve crop production under different situations
Change in Maturity Duration:
- Shorter duration from sowing to harvesting makes variety more economical
- Allows farmers to grow multiple rounds of crops in a year
- Reduces cost of crop production
- Uniform maturity makes harvesting process easy and reduces losses
Wider Adaptability: Developing varieties for wider adaptability helps stabilise crop production under different environmental conditions. One variety can be grown under different climatic conditions in different areas.
Desirable Agronomic Characteristics:
- Tallness and profuse branching are desirable for fodder crops
- Dwarfness is desired in cereals so less nutrients are consumed
- Developing varieties of desired agronomic characters helps give higher productivity
Question 1: How do biotic and abiotic factors affect crop production?
- Biotic factors (diseases, insects, nematodes) can reduce crop production by damaging plants
- Abiotic factors (drought, salinity, water logging, heat, cold, frost) create stress conditions that reduce crop yields
- Varieties resistant to these stresses can improve overall crop production
Question 2: What are the desirable agronomic characteristics for crop improvements?
- For fodder crops: tallness and profuse branching
- For cereals: dwarfness to reduce nutrient consumption
- These characteristics help achieve higher productivity
12.1.2 Crop Production Management
Farming in India ranges from small to very large farms. Different farmers have varying levels of land, money and access to information and technologies. Financial conditions determine what farming practices and agricultural technologies farmers can adopt.
There is correlation between higher inputs and yields. Farmer’s purchasing capacity for inputs decides cropping system and production practices.
Production Practice Levels
- No cost production
- Low cost production
- High cost production practices
12.1.2 (i) Nutrient Management
Plants require nutrients for growth, just as humans need food for development. Nutrients are supplied to plants by air, water and soil.
Nutrient Sources
| Source | Nutrients |
|---|---|
| Air | Carbon, Oxygen |
| Water | Hydrogen, Oxygen |
| Soil (Macro-nutrients) | Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur |
| Soil (Micro-nutrients) | Iron, Manganese, Boron, Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum, Chlorine |
Macro-nutrients: Required in large quantities by plants
Micro-nutrients: Required in small quantities by plants
Deficiency of these nutrients affects physiological processes in plants including reproduction, growth and susceptibility to diseases. To increase yield, soil can be enriched by supplying nutrients in form of manure and fertilizers.
Question 1: What are macro-nutrients and why are they called macro-nutrients?
- Macro-nutrients are nutrients required by plants in large quantities
- They include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur
- Called macro-nutrients because of the large amounts needed for plant growth
Question 2: How do plants get nutrients?
- Plants get carbon and oxygen from air
- Plants get hydrogen from water
- Plants get thirteen other nutrients from soil (both macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients)
Manure
Manure contains large quantities of organic matter and supplies small quantities of nutrients to soil. It is prepared by decomposition of animal excreta and plant waste.
Benefits of Manure:
- Enriches soil with nutrients and organic matter
- Increases soil fertility
- Improves soil structure
- Increases water holding capacity in sandy soils
- Helps in drainage and avoiding water logging in clayey soils
- Uses biological waste material, protecting environment from excessive fertilizer use
- Provides way of recycling farm waste
Types of Manure:
Compost and Vermi-compost:
- Composting involves decomposition of farm waste material (livestock excreta/cow dung, vegetable waste, animal refuse, domestic waste, sewage waste, straw, eradicated weeds) in pits
- Compost is rich in organic matter and nutrients
- Vermi-compost uses earthworms to hasten decomposition process of plant and animal refuse
Green Manure:
- Plants like sun hemp or guar are grown prior to sowing crop seeds
- These plants are mulched by ploughing them into soil
- Green plants turn into green manure
- Helps in enriching soil in nitrogen and phosphorus
Fertilizers
Fertilizers are commercially produced plant nutrients that supply nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. They ensure good vegetative growth (leaves, branches and flowers), giving rise to healthy plants. Fertilizers are a factor in higher yields of high-cost farming.
Proper Application of Fertilizers:
- Should be applied in proper dose
- Applied at right time
- Pre and post-application precautions should be observed for complete utilisation
- Excessive irrigation can wash away fertilizers before complete absorption by plants
- Excess fertilizer leads to water pollution
Problems with Continuous Fertilizer Use:
- Can destroy soil fertility
- Organic matter in soil is not replenished
- Micro-organisms in soil are harmed
- Short-term benefits must be balanced against long-term benefits of manure for maintaining soil fertility
Question: Compare the use of manure and fertilizers in maintaining soil fertility
Manure:
- Contains large quantities of organic matter
- Supplies small quantities of nutrients
- Improves soil structure and water holding capacity
- Replenishes organic matter in soil
- Supports micro-organisms in soil
- Provides long-term benefits for soil fertility
- Uses biological waste material
Fertilizers:
- Commercially produced plant nutrients
- Supply concentrated amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
- Provide short-term benefits with quick results
- Can harm soil fertility with continuous use
- Can destroy micro-organisms in soil
- May cause water pollution if not properly used
Organic Farming
Organic farming is a farming system with minimal or no use of chemicals as fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides. It includes:
- Maximum input of organic manures
- Recycled farm wastes (straw and livestock excreta)
- Use of bio-agents such as blue green algae culture in preparation of biofertilizers
- Neem leaves or turmeric in grain storage as bio-pesticides
- Healthy cropping systems (mixed cropping, inter-cropping and crop rotation)
These cropping systems are beneficial in insect, pest and weed control besides providing nutrients.
12.1.2 (ii) Irrigation
Most agriculture in India is rain-fed, meaning crop success depends on timely monsoons and sufficient rainfall throughout growing season. Poor monsoons cause crop failure.
Ensuring crops get water at right stages during growing season can increase expected yields of any crop. Many measures are used to bring more agricultural land under irrigation.
Drought Information
Droughts occur because of scarcity or irregular distribution of rains. Drought poses threat to rain-fed farming areas where farmers depend only on rain without using irrigation. Light soils have less water retention capacity. In areas with light soils, crops get adversely affected by drought conditions. Scientists have developed some crop varieties which can tolerate drought conditions.
Types of Irrigation Systems
India has wide variety of water resources and highly varied climate. Several different irrigation systems are adopted depending on kinds of water resources available.
Wells:
- Two types: dug wells and tube wells
- Dug wells collect water from water bearing strata
- Tube wells tap water from deeper strata
- Water is lifted by pumps for irrigation
Canals:
- Usually an elaborate and extensive irrigation system
- Canals receive water from one or more reservoirs or from rivers
- Main canal is divided into branch canals having further distributaries to irrigate fields
River Lift Systems:
- Used in areas where canal flow is insufficient or irregular due to inadequate reservoir release
- Water is directly drawn from rivers for supplementing irrigation in areas close to rivers
Tanks:
- Small storage reservoirs
- Intercept and store run-off of smaller catchment areas
Fresh Initiatives for Increasing Water Availability
Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and storing rainwater for agricultural use
Watershed Management:
- Building small check-dams
- Leads to increase in ground water levels
- Check-dams stop rainwater from flowing away
- Reduces soil erosion
12.1.2 (iii) Cropping Patterns
Different ways of growing crops can be used to give maximum benefit.
Mixed Cropping
Growing two or more crops simultaneously on same piece of land.
Examples:
- Wheat and gram
- Wheat and mustard
- Groundnut and sunflower
Benefits:
- Reduces risk
- Gives insurance against failure of one of the crops
Inter-cropping
Growing two or more crops simultaneously on same field in a definite pattern. A few rows of one crop alternate with a few rows of a second crop.
Examples:
- Soyabean and maize
- Finger millet (bajra) and cowpea (lobia)
Selection Criteria: Crops are selected such that their nutrient requirements are different.
Benefits:
- Ensures maximum utilisation of nutrients supplied
- Prevents pests and diseases from spreading to all plants belonging to one crop in a field
- Both crops can give better returns
Crop Rotation
The growing of different crops on a piece of land in pre-planned succession. Depending upon duration, crop rotation is done for different crop combinations.
Factors Affecting Choice:
- Availability of moisture
- Irrigation facilities
Benefits: If done properly, two or three crops can be grown in a year with good harvests.
12.1.3 Crop Protection Management
Field crops are infested by large number of weeds, insect pests and diseases. If weeds and pests are not controlled at appropriate time, they can damage crops so much that most of the crop is lost.
Weeds
Weeds are unwanted plants in cultivated field.
Examples:
- Xanthium (gokhroo)
- Parthenium (gajar ghas)
- Cyperus rotundus (motha)
Problems Caused by Weeds:
- Compete for food, space and light
- Take up nutrients
- Reduce growth of crop
- Removal during early stages of crop growth is essential for good harvest
Insect Pests
Insect pests attack plants in three ways:
- Cut the root, stem and leaf
- Suck cell sap from various parts of plant
- Bore into stem and fruits
They affect health of crop and reduce yields.
Plant Diseases
Diseases in plants are caused by pathogens such as bacteria, fungi and viruses. These pathogens can be present in and transmitted through soil, water and air.
Control Methods
Chemical Methods:
- Use of pesticides (herbicides, insecticides and fungicides)
- Chemicals are sprayed on crop plants or used for treating seeds and soil
- Excessive use creates problems as they can be poisonous to many plant and animal species
- Causes environmental pollution
Weed Control Methods:
- Mechanical removal
- Proper seed bed preparation
- Timely sowing of crops
- Intercropping
- Crop rotation
Preventive Measures Against Pests:
- Use of resistant varieties
- Summer ploughing (fields are ploughed deep in summers to destroy weeds and pests)
Question: Which of the following conditions will give the most benefits? Why?
(a) Farmers use high-quality seeds, do not adopt irrigation or use fertilizers
(b) Farmers use ordinary seeds, adopt irrigation and use fertilizer
(c) Farmers use quality seeds, adopt irrigation, use fertilizer and use crop protection measures
Answer: Option (c) will give the most benefits because:
- Quality seeds ensure better germination and yield potential
- Irrigation provides water at right stages of crop growth
- Fertilizers supply necessary nutrients for plant growth
- Crop protection measures prevent losses from weeds, pests and diseases
- Combination of all these factors ensures maximum crop yield and quality
- Each factor complements others for optimal crop production
Storage of Grains
Storage losses in agricultural produce can be very high. Factors responsible for such losses are:
Biotic Factors:
- Insects
- Rodents
- Fungi
- Mites
- Bacteria
Abiotic Factors:
- Inappropriate moisture
- Inappropriate temperatures in place of storage
Effects of Poor Storage:
- Degradation in quality
- Loss in weight
- Poor germinability
- Discolouration of produce
- Poor marketability
Control Measures:
Preventive Measures Used Before Storage:
- Strict cleaning of produce before storage
- Proper drying of produce first in sunlight and then in shade
- Fumigation using chemicals that can kill pests
Management:
- Proper treatment
- Systematic management of warehouses
Question 1: Why should preventive measures and biological control methods be preferred for protecting crops?
- Preventive measures stop problems before they occur, reducing need for chemical intervention
- Biological control methods use natural enemies of pests, maintaining ecological balance
- Chemical pesticides can be poisonous to many plant and animal species
- Excessive use of chemicals causes environmental pollution
- Preventive and biological methods are more sustainable and environmentally friendly
- They do not harm beneficial micro-organisms in soil
- They are safer for human health and food quality
Question 2: What factors may be responsible for losses of grains during storage?
Biotic factors:
- Insects that feed on stored grains
- Rodents that consume and contaminate grains
- Fungi that cause decay and spoilage
- Mites that damage grains
- Bacteria that cause deterioration
Abiotic factors:
- Inappropriate moisture levels leading to spoilage
- Inappropriate temperatures promoting pest growth and grain degradation
These factors cause degradation in quality, loss in weight, poor germinability, discolouration and poor marketability.
12.2 Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is the scientific management of animal livestock. It includes various aspects such as feeding, breeding and disease control.
Animal-based farming includes:
- Cattle
- Goat
- Sheep
- Poultry
- Fish farming
As population increases and living standards increase, demand for milk, eggs and meat is also going up. Growing awareness of need for humane treatment of livestock has brought new limitations in livestock farming. Thus, livestock production also needs to be improved.
Nutritional Values of Animal Products
| Animal Products | Fat (%) | Protein (%) | Sugar (%) | Minerals (%) | Water (%) | Vitamins |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Milk (Cow) | 3.60 | 4.00 | 4.50 | 0.70 | 87.20 | B1, B2, B12, D, E |
| Egg | 12.00 | 13.00 | * | 1.00 | 74.00 | B2, D |
| Meat | 3.60 | 21.10 | * | 1.10 | 74.20 | B2, B12 |
| Fish | 2.50 | 19.00 | * | 1.30 | 77.20 | Niacin, D, A |
*Present in very small amounts
12.2.1 Cattle Farming
Cattle husbandry is done for two purposes:
- Milk production
- Draught labour for agricultural work (tilling, irrigation and carting)
Indian Cattle Species
Bos indicus: Cows
Bos bubalis: Buffaloes
Milch animals (dairy animals): Milk-producing females
Draught animals: Ones used for farm labour
Milk Production Factors
Milk production depends, to some extent, on duration of lactation period (the period of milk production after birth of a calf). Milk production can be increased by increasing lactation period.
Cattle Breeds
Exotic or Foreign Breeds:
- Examples: Jersey, Brown Swiss
- Selected for long lactation periods
Local Breeds:
- Examples: Red Sindhi, Sahiwal
- Show excellent resistance to diseases
Cross-breeding: The two can be cross-bred to get animals with both desired qualities (long lactation periods and disease resistance).
Question: Which method is commonly used for improving cattle breeds and why?
- Cross-breeding is commonly used method for improving cattle breeds
- It combines desirable traits from different breeds
- Exotic breeds provide long lactation periods for higher milk production
- Local breeds provide excellent disease resistance
- Cross-breeding produces animals with both qualities
- Results in better overall productivity and health of cattle
Housing and Shelter
Proper cleaning and shelter facilities for cows and buffaloes are required for:
- Humane farming
- Health of animals
- Production of clean milk
Cleaning Requirements:
- Animals require regular brushing to remove dirt and loose hair
Shelter Requirements:
- Well-ventilated roofed sheds
- Protection from rain, heat and cold
- Floor should be sloping to stay dry and facilitate cleaning
Food Requirements of Dairy Animals
Maintenance Requirement: Food required to support animal to live a healthy life
Milk Producing Requirement: Type of food required during lactation period
Types of Animal Feed:
Roughage: Largely fibre
Concentrates: Low in fibre and contain relatively high levels of proteins and other nutrients
Balanced Rations: Cattle need balanced rations containing all nutrients in proportionate amounts
Feed Additives: Certain feed additives containing micronutrients promote health and milk output of dairy animals
Cattle Diseases
Cattle suffer from number of diseases. Besides causing death, diseases reduce milk production.
Signs of Healthy Animal:
- Feeds regularly
- Has normal posture
Types of Parasites:
External Parasites:
- Live on skin
- Mainly cause skin diseases
Internal Parasites:
- Worms affect stomach and intestine
- Flukes damage liver
Infectious Diseases: Caused by bacteria and viruses
Prevention: Vaccinations are given to farm animals against many major viral and bacterial diseases
12.2.2 Poultry Farming
Poultry farming is undertaken to raise domestic fowl for:
- Egg production
- Chicken meat
Improved poultry breeds are developed and farmed to produce:
- Layers for eggs
- Broilers for meat
Cross-breeding in Poultry
Cross-breeding programmes between Indian (indigenous, example: Aseel) and foreign (exotic, example: Leghorn) breeds focus on variety improvement to develop new varieties.
Desirable Traits Focused On:
- Number and quality of chicks
- Dwarf broiler parent for commercial chick production
- Summer adaptation capacity/tolerance to high temperature
- Low maintenance requirements
- Reduction in size of egg-laying bird with ability to utilise more fibrous cheaper diets formulated using agricultural by-products
Question: Discuss the implications of the following statement: “It is interesting to note that poultry is India’s most efficient converter of low fibre food stuff (which is unfit for human consumption) into highly nutritious animal protein food.”
- Poultry can utilize agricultural by-products and fibrous materials that humans cannot consume
- This food is converted into highly nutritious eggs and meat containing quality proteins
- Makes poultry farming economically efficient as feed costs are reduced
- Reduces waste by utilizing materials otherwise discarded
- Provides affordable source of animal protein for population
- Makes optimal use of available resources in food production chain
- Demonstrates sustainability of poultry farming in India’s agricultural system
Egg and Broiler Production
Broiler Production:
- Broiler chickens are fed with vitamin-rich supplementary feed
- Ensures good growth rate and better feed efficiency
- Care is taken to avoid mortality
- Maintenance of feathering and carcass quality is important
- Produced as broilers and sent to market for meat purposes
Broiler Diet:
- Ration (daily food requirement) for broilers is protein rich with adequate fat
- Level of vitamins A and K is kept high in poultry feeds
Housing Requirements: Housing, nutritional and environmental requirements of broilers are somewhat different from those of egg layers.
Management Practices
For good production of poultry birds, good management practices are important:
- Maintenance of temperature in housing
- Hygienic conditions in housing and poultry feed
- Prevention and control of diseases and pests
Poultry Diseases
Poultry fowl suffer from number of diseases caused by:
- Virus
- Bacteria
- Fungi
- Parasites
- Nutritional deficiencies
Disease Prevention:
- Proper cleaning
- Sanitation
- Spraying of disinfectants at regular intervals
- Appropriate vaccination to prevent infectious diseases
- Reduces loss of poultry during outbreak of disease
Question 1: What management practices are common in dairy and poultry farming?
Common practices:
- Proper shelter and housing facilities
- Regular cleaning and sanitation
- Hygienic conditions for animals/birds
- Balanced and nutritious feed
- Disease prevention through vaccination
- Control of pests and parasites
- Maintenance of appropriate temperature
- Breeding for improved varieties
- Regular health monitoring
Question 2: What are the differences between broilers and layers and in their management?
Broilers:
- Raised for meat production
- Require protein-rich feed with adequate fat
- Fed vitamin-rich supplementary feed for good growth rate
- Focus on rapid growth and carcass quality
- Shorter rearing period
- Sent to market for meat
Layers:
- Raised for egg production
- Different nutritional requirements focused on egg production
- Longer rearing period
- Focus on egg quantity and quality
- Different housing requirements
Management differences:
- Housing, nutritional and environmental requirements of broilers are different from egg layers
- Feed composition varies based on purpose
- Growth monitoring parameters differ
12.2.3 Fish Production
Fish is a cheap source of animal protein for our food. Fish production includes:
- Finned true fish
- Shellfish such as prawns and molluscs
Methods of Obtaining Fish
Capture Fishing: Obtaining fish from natural resources
Culture Fishery: Fish farming
Water Sources for Fish
- Seawater (marine)
- Fresh water (rivers and ponds)
Fishing can be done by both capture and culture of fish in marine and freshwater ecosystems.
12.2.3 (i) Marine Fisheries
India’s marine fishery resources include:
- 7500 km of coastline
- Deep seas beyond it
Popular Marine Fish Varieties:
- Pomphret
- Mackerel
- Tuna
- Sardines
- Bombay duck
Capture Methods:
- Marine fish are caught using many kinds of fishing nets from fishing boats
- Yields are increased by locating large schools of fish in open sea using satellites and echo-sounders
Marine Fish Farming
Some marine fish of high economic value are also farmed in seawater:
Finned Fishes:
- Mullets
- Bhetki
- Pearl spots
Shellfish:
- Prawns
- Mussels
- Oysters
Other Marine Products:
- Seaweed
- Pearls (oysters are cultivated for pearls they make)
Mariculture: As marine fish stocks get further depleted, demand for more fish can only be met by such culture fisheries, a practice called mariculture.
12.2.3 (ii) Inland Fisheries
Fresh Water Resources:
- Canals
- Ponds
- Reservoirs
- Rivers
Brackish Water Resources: Where seawater and fresh water mix together
- Estuaries
- Lagoons
While capture fishing is also done in such inland water bodies, yield is not high. Most fish production from these resources is through aquaculture.
Fish Culture Methods
Fish Culture with Rice Crop: Fish culture is sometimes done in combination with rice crop, so fish are grown in water in paddy field.
Composite Fish Culture Systems: More intensive fish farming can be done in composite fish culture systems using both local and imported fish species.
Composite Fish Culture System
In such system, a combination of five or six fish species is used in a single fishpond. Species are selected so that they do not compete for food among them having different types of food habits. As a result, food available in all parts of pond is used.
Fish Species and Their Feeding Zones:
- Catlas: Surface feeders
- Rohus: Feed in middle-zone of pond
- Mrigals: Bottom feeders
- Common Carps: Bottom feeders
- Grass Carps: Feed on weeds
Together these species can use all food in pond without competing with each other. This increases fish yield from pond.
Problems in Fish Farming
Main Problem: Many of these fish breed only during monsoon. If fish seed is collected from wild, it can be mixed with that of other species.
Major Challenge: Lack of availability of good-quality seed
Solution: Ways have been worked out to breed these fish in ponds using hormonal stimulation. This has ensured supply of pure fish seed in desired quantities.
Question 1: How are fish obtained?
- Through capture fishing from natural resources (marine and inland water bodies)
- Through culture fishery (fish farming) in marine ecosystems (mariculture)
- Through aquaculture in freshwater and brackish water resources
- From composite fish culture systems in ponds
- From fish farming combined with rice cultivation
Question 2: What are the advantages of composite fish culture?
- Allows cultivation of five or six fish species in single pond
- Different species have different food habits and feeding zones
- No competition for food among different species
- Complete utilisation of food available in all parts of pond
- Surface feeders, middle-zone feeders, bottom feeders and weed feeders can coexist
- Increases overall fish yield from pond
- Makes efficient use of pond resources
- Provides variety of fish from same pond
12.2.4 Bee-keeping
Honey is widely used and therefore bee-keeping for making honey has become an agricultural enterprise. Since bee-keeping needs low investments, farmers use it as an additional income generating activity.
Products from Bee-keeping
Honey: Widely used food product
Wax: Used in various medicinal preparations
Bee Varieties Used in India
Local Varieties for Commercial Honey Production:
- Apis cerana indica: Commonly known as Indian bee
- Apis dorsata: Rock bee
- Apis florae: Little bee
Italian Bee Variety:
- Apis mellifera: Brought in to increase yield of honey, commonly used for commercial honey production
Characteristics of Italian Bees
- High honey collection capacity
- Sting somewhat less
- Stay in given beehive for long periods
- Breed very well
Commercial Honey Production
For commercial honey production, bee farms or apiaries are established.
Pasturage and Honey Quality
Pasturage: The flowers available to bees for nectar and pollen collection
Factors Affecting Honey Quality:
- Adequate quantity of pasturage
- Kind of flowers available determines taste of honey
- Value or quality of honey depends upon pasturage
Question 1: What are the desirable characters of bee varieties suitable for honey production?
- High honey collection capacity
- Less aggressive stinging behavior
- Stay in beehive for long periods (do not abandon hive)
- Good breeding capacity
- Ability to adapt to local conditions
Question 2: What is pasturage and how is it related to honey production?
- Pasturage refers to flowers available to bees for nectar and pollen collection
- Quality of honey depends on pasturage
- Adequate quantity of pasturage is necessary for good honey production
- Kind of flowers available determines taste and flavor of honey
- Better pasturage results in higher quality and quantity of honey
- Variety of flowers in pasturage affects final honey product
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