Between 1000 CE and 1700 CE, the Indian subcontinent experienced invasions, wars, changes in political authority, religious pressures and major social transformations. Yet people continued to defend their lands, maintain cultural traditions and develop economic institutions.

Two important ideas help us understand how communities responded to these challenges: resistance and resilience.

1.1 Understanding Resistance

Resistance may take several forms:

1.2 Understanding Resilience

A resilient society can rebuild after destruction, recover from military defeats, continue cultural practices and develop new economic methods when circumstances change.

1.3 Difference between Resistance and Resilience

Sovereignty means the authority of a state to govern itself. From the 7th century onwards, invading forces attempted to expand their political control over different regions of India.

The prosperous agricultural plains and rich economic resources attracted invading powers. Regional rulers responded with armed resistance, alliances and organised defence.

2.1 Early Invasions and Resistance

2.2 Major Dynasties and Their Regions

2.3 Rajput Dynasties: Confederacies and Resistance (1200–1500 CE)

The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 introduced stronger centralised administration. Several regional rulers resisted the Sultanate's military and political expansion.

The Iqta System

Under the iqta system, territories were assigned to military commanders in place of regular salaries. Revenue from these territories supported military and administrative responsibilities.

Regional Resistance

The Sultanate encountered resistance from the Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of Karnataka and several Rajput kingdoms.

Important centres of opposition included Mewar, Gwalior, Malwa, Ajmer, Jalore, Kalinjar and Kannauj.

In the early 16th century, the Delhi Sultanate weakened under Ibrahim Lodi. Babur entered India from Central Asia and established Mughal rule following his victory at Panipat.

3.1 Two Approaches of Rajput Rulers

The Mughals benefited from Rajput military abilities, local influence and administrative experience. Some Rajput rulers benefited from imperial offices and political security.

3.2 Mansabdari System

Akbar's mansabdari system combined civil administration with military organisation and created a ranking hierarchy among imperial officers.

3.3 Mewar's Resistance against Mughals

Akbar attacked Chittor in 1567–1568. Although the fort was captured after a prolonged siege, Rana Udai Singh withdrew into the Aravalli Hills and maintained Mewar's political resistance.

His successor, Maharana Pratap, fought the Mughal forces at the Battle of Haldighati in 1576.

Guerrilla Warfare in the Aravalli Hills

After Haldighati, Maharana Pratap relied on guerrilla warfare, including surprise attacks, ambushes and rapid movement through mountainous terrain.

Battle of Dewair (1582)

The Battle of Dewair weakened Mughal military outposts and helped Maharana Pratap recover much of his ancestral territory.

Role of the Bhil Community

The Bhils supported Mewar through knowledge of the Aravalli terrain, archery, guiding troops and guerrilla warfare. Their contribution was later represented in Mewar's coat of arms.

Maharana Amar Singh

Maharana Amar Singh continued Mewar's resistance. Mughal expeditions in 1605, 1608 and 1609 met organised opposition. Later negotiations recognised Mewar's distinct political position, including exemption from the ruler's personal attendance at the Mughal court.

The Ahom kingdom of Assam maintained its political independence for almost six centuries (1228–1826 CE).

The Ahoms resisted several invasions by using their knowledge of forests, rivers, monsoon conditions and the Brahmaputra valley.

4.1 Important Ahom–Mughal Conflicts

4.2 Battle of Saraighat (1671)

The Battle of Saraighat was fought on the Brahmaputra River. Under the leadership of Lachit Borphukan, the Ahoms defeated the Mughal naval forces.

Bachari Boats and River Warfare

4.3 Reasons for Ahom Success

The Vijayanagara Empire emerged in southern India as the campaigns of the Delhi Sultanate weakened several older kingdoms.

Harihara and Bukka established Vijayanagara in 1336 CE near present-day Hampi in Karnataka.

5.1 Advantages of the Location

Vijayanagara benefited from rocky hills, rugged terrain and a major river system, which provided natural defensive advantages.

5.2 Conflict with the Madurai Sultanate

In 1342, Hoysala king Vira Ballala III fought the Madurai Sultanate at Kannanur. He was later killed following a counter-attack.

The Vijayanagara struggle continued, and Kumara Kampana, son of Bukka, eventually defeated the Madurai Sultanate.

He also restored divine images at important temples in Kanchipuram and Srirangam.

5.3 Krishnadevaraya

Under Krishnadevaraya, Vijayanagara reached a period of major military and cultural achievement during the 16th century.

• Expanded and defended the empire.
• Encouraged literary activity in different languages.
• Supported temples including Tirupati and the Vitthala temple.
• Promoted trade and the maintenance of ports.

Krishnadevaraya died in 1529 CE.

5.4 Battle of Talikota (1565)

The Vijayanagara army was defeated in 1565 CE by an alliance of Deccan sultanates. The capital was attacked and largely abandoned, and the empire gradually fragmented.

5.5 Rise of Nayaka Kingdoms

Several smaller Nayaka kingdoms emerged from former Vijayanagara territories. These kingdoms continued elements of the political and cultural traditions of Vijayanagara.

A local tradition describes Muthu Virappa Nayak III of Madurai refusing a symbolic ceremony recognising Mughal supremacy, illustrating non-military political defiance.

The Marathas became a powerful political and military force in the Deccan. Their rise is closely associated with Chhatrapati Shivaji.

Shivaji's coronation as an independent Maratha ruler took place in 1674 CE.

6.1 Strategies Used by the Marathas

6.2 Importance of Maratha Forts

Forts such as Raigad and Sinhagad were centres of military defence and administration. They also stored food, water and weapons for long sieges.

Illustrated Fort Defence System

6.3 Functions of Forts

6.4 Gingee or Senji Fort

Gingee Fort in Tamil Nadu was an important military stronghold. Its defensive design and natural setting made it strategically important to several powers, including the Nayakas, Marathas, Mughals, French and English.

The textbook records its inclusion in a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2025.

Guru Nanak founded a major spiritual movement in the late 15th century which later became known as Sikhism.

The movement emphasised devotion to one God, social equality and rejection of empty rituals.

7.1 Sikh Gurus and Political Challenges

7.2 Miri–Piri

Miri–Piri represents the combination of spiritual and worldly authority.

7.3 Khalsa and Misals

The Khalsa, established by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699, developed a strong collective identity and martial code.

Later, Sikh armed groups called misals organised military and administrative defence. Over time, these groups developed into confederacies.

The Jats were an important agricultural community in the Ganga–Yamuna Doab. During the 17th century, heavy taxation, economic pressure and Aurangzeb's religious policies contributed to growing opposition to Mughal authority.

Niccolao Manucci, an Italian traveller, wrote about Jat resistance during the 17th century.

Bhakti means personal devotion to the divine. The tradition encouraged devotion through hymns, prayer, remembrance, collective singing and the use of local languages.

Bhakti traditions spread across India and helped preserve spiritual and social connections during times of political change.

9.1 Main Features of Bhakti

9.2 Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti

9.3 Nama Kirtan, Sankirtan and Satsang

9.4 Important Bhakti Saints

9.5 Women in the Bhakti Tradition

Women from different backgrounds participated in Bhakti traditions and contributed to devotional literature.

9.6 Regional Spread of Bhakti

9.7 Cultural Inclusion and Literature

The Bhakti tradition attracted devotees from diverse backgrounds. Raskhan, Rahim and Bibi Lachimar are examples mentioned in the chapter.

Translations and retellings of the Ramayana and Mahabharata in regional languages made religious and cultural literature accessible to wider sections of society.

Devotional traditions associated with goddesses such as Kali, Durga and Bhavani also remained influential in the cultural lives of many kingdoms.

9.8 Sulh-i-Kul

It helped the Mughal state seek support from different political and religious groups.

9.9 Sufism

Sufism is a mystical dimension of Islam that emphasises spiritual devotion. Sufi traditions spread through different orders called silsilahs.

Sufi khanqahs and shrines became places of religious and social interaction. Sufis also adopted local languages and some Indian spiritual practices to connect with wider communities.

Temples in medieval India were important centres of religious, economic, social and political life.

10.1 Multiple Functions of Temples

10.2 Temples as Economic Institutions

Temples received land grants, donations, ornaments and other valuable resources. Their wealth could support irrigation, agricultural development, credit and local employment.

The Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur illustrates the economic importance of major temples.

Temple towns such as Thanjavur, Kanchipuram and Puri became important urban centres.

10.3 Temples and Political Authority

• Gajapati rulers described themselves as deputies of Jagannath.
• Kachhwaha rulers of Jaipur associated their rule with Govindadeva Ji.
• Rajput rulers of Kota regarded themselves as representatives of Rama.

10.4 Temple Destruction and Restoration

Military conflicts led to the destruction or plundering of some religious institutions. Local rulers, merchant guilds and communities continued maintaining or rebuilding sacred sites.

10.5 Architectural Changes in Temples

From the 16th century onwards, some temples were built in less visible locations or designed to resemble residential buildings.

Visual Comparison: Prominent Temple and Haveli-Style Temple

10.6 Haveli Temples

A haveli temple is a temple constructed in a style resembling a residential building.

The textbook discusses such architectural adaptation in places including Delhi, Varanasi and Rajasthan.

The Jagat Shiromani Temple at Amer was built by Queen Kanakwati, wife of Man Singh I, and dedicated to Krishna and Mirabai.

The Jagdish Temple at Udaipur, supported by Jagat Singh, is discussed as an example of architecture expressing political and cultural identity.

Despite repeated invasions and political changes, agriculture, craft production, trade and financial systems remained important features of the Indian economy.

11.1 Agriculture and Land Revenue

Land revenue was a principal source of state income. Expanding territories often increased the area under cultivation.

During the reigns of Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq, agricultural taxation could rise to as much as 50% of total production, in addition to other taxes.

11.2 Irrigation and Economic Production

Local communities used different techniques and tools to support cultivation and production. These included rope-pulley systems and Persian wheels used to lift water, along with technologies such as spinning wheels in craft activity.

Irrigation arrangements varied from canals to smaller local systems. The Vijayanagara economy invested especially in small-scale irrigation.

11.3 Inland Trade

Indian merchants participated in networks linking villages, towns, cities and Central Asia.

Caravans transported goods across long distances. Banjara communities were important in moving goods between rural and urban regions.

11.4 The Hundi System

A hundi was a financial instrument used for trade payments and long-distance transfer of money.

It could function like a bill of exchange, reducing the need to physically transport large amounts of currency.

11.5 Sarrafs and Gumasthas

11.6 Maritime Trade

From the 13th century onwards, sea-based trade expanded. Indian ports were connected with the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, Southeast Asia and China.

India became an important participant in the wider Indian Ocean commercial network.

11.7 Krishnadevaraya and Trade

In his work Amukthamalyada, Krishnadevaraya stressed the importance of maintaining ports, encouraging commerce and treating foreign traders fairly.

Before European commercial expansion, Indian Ocean trade already connected Indian, Arab and Chinese merchants.

From the 16th century onwards, the Portuguese and other European trading powers became important participants in this established commercial system.

12.1 European Trading Powers

12.2 Indian Ocean Trading Networks

12.3 Roles of Indian Merchants

Gujarati merchant groups became influential, while trading communities from Malabar, Coromandel and Bengal adapted to European commercial competition.

People from agricultural communities, including some Vellalar groups, also participated in trading activities.

Some merchants and cultivators learned Portuguese, French, English or Persian to communicate with foreign traders.

12.4 Economic Resilience

Even during wars and political instability, India maintained commercial and economic activity through local communities, agricultural production, financial practices and merchant networks.