History is not static—it changes through time, influenced by geography, culture, and technology. Between 700 and 1750 CE, the Indian subcontinent witnessed dramatic shifts in politics, society, religion, and economy. This article explores these transformations, from shifting map boundaries to the rise of new empires and religions.
1. Maps and Changes Over Time
- Old Maps:
- These maps were made in 1154 CE by an Arab geographer named Al-Idrisi.
- They show the Indian subcontinent with south India at the top and Sri Lanka above it.
- Place names like Kanauj (spelt Qanauj) are written in Arabic.
- This layout looks very different from what we know today.
- New Maps:
- These were created in the 1720s by a French mapmaker, 600 years later.
- They look more like today’s maps with detailed coastal areas.
- European sailors and merchants used them for their voyages.
- Inland areas, like the River Ganga’s path, are less clear than the coasts.
- Why Different:
- People learned more about the subcontinent over those 600 years.
- This improved the information shown in later maps.
- The science of map-making, called cartography, got better over time.
- That’s why the newer maps are more detailed and accurate.
- Historians’ Job:
- Historians study old maps, documents, and texts to understand the past.
- They think about the time and situation when these were made.
2. New and Old Terminologies
- Language Changes:
- Old records are in many languages that changed over the years.
- This makes them hard to read today.
- For example, medieval Persian is not like modern Persian.
- It differs in grammar, words, and their meanings.
- Term “Hindustan”:
- Today, “Hindustan” means the whole country of India.
- It’s seen as a modern nation.
- In the 13th century, Minhaj-i-Siraj used it for Punjab, Haryana, and Ganga-Yamuna lands.
- He meant areas ruled by the Delhi Sultan, not south India.
- By the 16th century, Babur used it for the subcontinent’s geography and culture.
- He included its animals and people too.
- Amir Khusrau in the 14th century used “Hind” in a similar way.
- Back then, it didn’t mean a nation like it does now.
- Term “Foreigner”:
- Today, a “foreigner” is someone not from India.
- It means they’re from another country.
- In old times, it was any stranger in a village or area.
- They weren’t part of its society—like a city person to a forest-dweller (pardesi or ajnabi).
- Two farmers in the same village weren’t foreigners to each other.
- This was true even if they had different religions or castes.
- Historians’ Care:
- Historians must be careful with old words.
- Their meanings were different in the past than today.
3. Historians and Their Sources
- What They Use:
- Historians use coins, carvings, buildings, and written records to study the past.
- It depends on the time they’re looking at.
- Last year, you read about Gupta rulers and Harshavardhana.
- This year, we cover the period from 700 to 1750.
- Changes in Sources:
- Old sources like coins and carvings are still used today.
- But written records grew a lot in number and types over these years.
- Paper’s Role:
- Paper became cheaper and more available over time.
- People used it a lot more for writing.
- They wrote holy books, kings’ stories, saints’ teachings, and court papers.
- They also kept tax and account records on it.
- Rich people, rulers, temples, and monasteries stored these writings.
- They kept them safe in libraries and archives.
- Copying Problems:
- Without printing machines, scribes copied everything by hand.
- This took a lot of effort and time.
- Sometimes they couldn’t read the handwriting and made mistakes.
- Small changes, like a word or sentence, happened during copying.
- Over centuries, these changes added up.
- Later copies became different from the original.
- Paper Value Example:
- In the 13th century, paper was very costly.
- A scholar reused it by washing off old writing.
- By the 14th century, paper was more common.
- Shopkeepers even wrapped food in it.
4. Thousand Years of Change (700-1750)
- New Things:
- New tools like the Persian wheel came for watering fields.
- The spinning wheel was introduced for making cloth.
- Firearms were brought in for battles.
- New foods like potatoes, corn, chillies, tea, and coffee arrived.
- Big Changes:
- The economy, politics, society, and culture all shifted a lot.
- These changes affected how people lived and worked.
- People travelled far looking for better chances.
- The subcontinent had lots of wealth to offer them.
- Rajputs:
- Rajputs became important between the 8th and 14th centuries.
- Their name comes from “Rajaputra,” meaning son of a ruler.
- They were warriors claiming to be Kshatriyas.
- They served as rulers, soldiers, or commanders for different kings.
- Poets and bards praised their bravery.
- They were known for strong loyalty too.
- Other Groups:
- Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms, and Kayasthas also rose in power.
- Kayasthas worked as scribes and secretaries during this time.
5. Habitat and Society
- What Habitat Means:
- Habitat is the environment of a region.
- It also includes how people live socially and economically.
- Farming Growth:
- Forests were cleared slowly to make farmland.
- Some areas changed faster than others.
- Forest-dwellers had to move away from their homes.
- Many started farming the land to survive.
- Peasant Life:
- New farmers linked up with markets and chieftains.
- They also connected with priests, monasteries, and temples.
- They paid taxes to local lords.
- They gave goods or services too.
- Differences Among Peasants:
- Some peasants had better, fertile land.
- Others kept cattle to support their families.
- Some did craftwork like making tools or pots.
- This happened during the off-season when farming slowed.
- Jatis (Sub-castes):
- People were grouped into jatis based on jobs and backgrounds.
- This created a social order in villages.
- A jati’s rank could change with power or wealth.
- It wasn’t fixed forever.
- Each jati had its own rules to follow.
- Elders, sometimes called a jati panchayat, enforced them.
- Jatis also followed the village’s rules.
- These were set by a chieftain.
- Villages:
- Many villages together made a small part of a state.
- They all worked under bigger rulers.
6. Region and Empire
- Big Empires:
- Large states like the Cholas, Tughluqs, and Mughals ruled many regions.
- They controlled diverse areas across the subcontinent.
- Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287) claimed a huge empire.
- He said it stretched from Bengal to Afghanistan and south India.
- People from Gauda, Andhra, Kerala, and other regions fled his armies.
- This showed his power over many places.
- Historians’ View:
- Historians think these claims were exaggerated.
- But they show rulers wanted to control the whole subcontinent.
- Languages:
- In 1318, Amir Khusrau listed regional languages like Sindhi and Lahori.
- He also named Kashmiri, Dvarsamudri (south Karnataka), and Telangani (Andhra Pradesh).
- Other languages were Gujari (Gujarat), Ma’bari (Tamil Nadu), and Gauri (Bengal).
- Awadhi (east Uttar Pradesh) and Hindawi (near Delhi) were included too.
- He said Sanskrit was an old language, not tied to any region.
- Only Brahmanas knew it, not common people.
- Regional Identity:
- By 700, regions had their own geography and languages.
- They also had unique cultures and ruling families.
- These states often fought with each other.
- This caused conflicts over land and power.
- Pan-Regional Empires:
- Big dynasties like Cholas and Mughals built empires across regions.
- They united many areas under one rule.
- Not all these empires were strong or lasted long.
- Some broke apart quickly.
- After Mughals:
- In the 18th century, the Mughal Empire weakened.
- Smaller regional states came back into power.
- Years of big rule left shared ways of governing.
- It also influenced economy, elite culture, and languages.
7. Old and New Religions
- Religion Changes:
- Over these years, beliefs about gods changed a lot.
- They were tied to how communities lived and worked.
- Sometimes beliefs were personal to one person.
- Usually, they were shared by a group.
- Hinduism:
- People started worshipping new gods in what we call Hinduism.
- Kings built temples to show their power.
- Brahmanas, the priests, became very important.
- They knew Sanskrit texts, earning them respect.
- New rulers supported Brahmanas to gain fame.
- This made them a strong group in society.
- Bhakti began as a way to love a personal god.
- It didn’t need priests or big rituals.
- Islam:
- Islam came in the 7th century with merchants and travellers.
- They brought the Quran, the Muslim holy book.
- Muslims believe in one God, Allah, who loves all believers.
- His love doesn’t depend on their background.
- Many rulers supported Islam and its scholars, called ulama.
- These scholars were experts in religion and law.
- Muslims split into Shia, who followed Ali, Prophet’s son-in-law.
- Sunni followed early leaders and later Khalifas.
- There were different schools of law like Hanafi and Shafi’i.
- Mystic traditions also grew in Islam.
8. Thinking About Time and Historical Periods
- Time for Historians:
- Historians see time as more than just hours or years.
- It shows changes in society, economy, and beliefs.
- They split the past into big periods with common features.
- This makes it easier to study history.
- Old Division:
- In the 19th century, British historians split India’s past into three parts.
- They called them “Hindu,” “Muslim,” and “British” times.
- This was based only on the rulers’ religion.
- It ignored changes in economy, society, or culture.
- Today’s View:
- Now, historians use economic and social changes to define periods.
- They don’t focus just on rulers or religion.
- Last year, you learned about hunters, farmers, and early kingdoms.
- This year, it’s the “medieval” period with peasants and empires.
- Problems:
- The 8th century was very different from the 16th or 18th.
- Calling it all “medieval” hides those differences.
- “Modern” means progress in things and ideas.
- This makes “medieval” seem stuck, but it wasn’t.
- Changes:
- Economies grew strong in many areas over these years.
- This attracted European trading companies to the subcontinent.
- Look for signs of how things changed as you read.
- Compare it with what you learned last year.
9. Questions and Answers
9.1 Recall Questions
- Who was considered a “foreigner” in the past?
- In the past, a “foreigner” was any stranger in a village.
- They weren’t part of its community or culture.
- True or False:
- (a) We do not find inscriptions for the period after 700—False.
- Inscriptions from after 700 exist and are used by historians.
- (b) The Marathas asserted their political importance during this period—True.
- They became powerful between 700 and 1750.
- © Forest-dwellers were sometimes pushed out of their lands with the spread of agricultural settlements—True.
- Farming took over forest areas, forcing people out.
- (d) Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban controlled Assam, Manipur, and Kashmir—False.
- His rule didn’t reach those areas; claims were exaggerated.
- (a) We do not find inscriptions for the period after 700—False.
- Fill in the Blanks:
- (a) Archives are places where old manuscripts are kept.
- Historians study them there.
- (b) Amir Khusrau was a fourteenth-century chronicler.
- He wrote about regions and languages.
- © Potatoes, chillies, and tea were new crops introduced.
- They came to the subcontinent during this period.
- (a) Archives are places where old manuscripts are kept.
- Technological Changes:
- The Persian wheel was used for watering fields.
- The spinning wheel helped make cloth faster.
- Firearms were introduced for fighting battles.
- These tools changed how people worked.
- Major Religious Developments:
- In Hinduism, new gods were worshipped.
- Kings built temples, and Brahmanas gained power.
- Bhakti started as a personal way to reach God.
- Islam came with the Quran and belief in Allah.
- It split into Shia and Sunni groups.
- Different laws and mystic ways grew too.
9.2 Understanding Questions
- How “Hindustan” Changed:
- In the 13th century, it meant lands ruled by the Delhi Sultan.
- This was Punjab, Haryana, and Ganga-Yamuna areas only.
- By the 16th century, it covered the subcontinent’s geography.
- It included its culture and wildlife too.
- Today, it means the modern nation of India.
- The meaning grew bigger over time.
- Jati Affairs:
- Jatis made their own rules for their members.
- Elders, sometimes called a jati panchayat, enforced them.
- They also had to follow the village’s rules.
- These were set by a chieftain.
- Pan-Regional Empire:
- It’s a big state ruling many regions together.
- Examples are Cholas, Tughluqs, and Mughals.
9.3 Discussion Questions
Each century was unique, causing problems.
Manuscript Difficulties:
Old handwriting is hard to read for historians.
Copies changed over time with small mistakes.
Meanings of words shifted too.
This makes manuscripts tricky to use.
Dividing the Past:
Historians split time into periods with shared traits.
They look at economy and society for this.
But lumping 1000 years as “medieval” misses differences.
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