Delhi Sultanate Notes: 12th to 15th Century
Timeline of Delhi Sultanate
Early Twelfth Century – 1165: Tomara Rule
- Early twelfth century: Tomara Rajputs established their kingdom with Delhi as capital
- Delhi became an imp commercial centre under Tomara rule
- Many rich merchants settled here during this period
- Several temples were built
- Coins minted here had wide circulation
1165 – 1192: Chauhan Rule
- 1165: Chauhans (Chahamanas) of Ajmer defeated the Tomaras
- 1165-1192: Chauhan rule continued the development of Delhi as commercial center
- Trade and commerce flourished under their rule
1206 – 1210: Early Turkish Rule
- 1206: Qutbuddin Aybak established the first Turkish rule in Delhi
- 1206-1210: Qutbuddin Aybak’s reign marked the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate
- This period started the transformation of Delhi into a major political center
1219: Mongol Invasions Begin
- 1219: Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana in north-east Iran
- This invasion affected the entire region including areas near Delhi
- Delhi Sultanate faced Mongol threats soon after this invasion
1236 – 1240: Raziyya’s Rule
- 1236: Raziyya, daughter of Sultan Iltutmish, became Sultan
- 1236-1240: Raziyya ruled for four years despite opposition
- 1240: She was removed from the throne due to noble opposition
- This period showed the challenges faced by women rulers in medieval times
1262 – 1289: Rudramadevi’s Rule in South
- 1262-1289: Queen Rudramadevi of Kakatiya dynasty ruled Warangal
- She was ruling in Andhra Pradesh region during this period
- Unlike Raziyya, she pretended to be a man on her inscriptions
1290 – 1320: Khalji Dynasty
- 1290: Khalji dynasty came to power in Delhi
- This period saw major administrative reforms
- Land revenue system was brought under state control
- Assessment and collection of taxes became more systematic
1320 – 1414: Tughluq Dynasty
- 1320: Tughluq dynasty established their rule
- This was the longest ruling dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate
- Major administrative challenges were faced during this period
- Mongol attacks increased during early Tughluq rule
1414 – 1421: Early Sayyid Rule
- 1414: Sayyid dynasty came to power
- 1414-1421: Khizr Khan ruled during early Sayyid period
- Central control began to weaken during this time
1451 – 1526: Lodi Dynasty
- 1451: Lodi dynasty established their rule
- This was the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate
- 1526: Lodi rule ended with the arrival of Mughals
1540 – 1555: Sher Shah Sur
- 1540: Sher Shah Sur defeated Mughal emperor Humayun
- 1540-1555: Sher Shah Sur ruled with effective administration
- His administrative system influenced later Mughal administration
1556 – 1605: Akbar’s Rule
- 1556: Akbar began consolidating the Mughal Empire
- 1556-1605: Akbar’s long reign used administrative models from Delhi Sultanate
- He borrowed elements from earlier Delhi Sultanate systems
980 – 1003: Didda’s Rule in Kashmir
- 980-1003: Queen Didda ruled in Kashmir
- Her title came from “didi” meaning elder sister
- She was known as a loved ruler by her subjects
Understanding Delhi under the Sultans
Historical Sources and Period Context
The main sources for understanding the Delhi Sultanate come from various periods:
- Tawarikh (histories) were written in Persian throughout the sultanate period
- Thirteenth century: Fakhr-i Mudabbir wrote about the “Circle of Justice”
- Mid-fourteenth century: Ziyauddin Barani chronicled events and criticized appointments
- Fourteenth century: Ibn Battuta traveled from Morocco and wrote about India
The Circle of Justice
The concept was explained in the thirteenth century:
“A king cannot survive without soldiers. And soldiers cannot live without salaries. Salaries come from the revenue collected from peasants. But peasants can pay revenue only when they are prosperous and happy. This happens when the king promotes justice and honest governance.”
This concept remained imp throughout the sultanate period and showed:
- King needs soldiers for protection
- Soldiers need salaries to survive
- Salaries come from peasant taxes
- Peasants can only pay when they are happy and prosperous
- This happens only with just rule
Administrative Evolution Over Time
Early Period (1206-1290):
- Use of special slaves (bandagan) in administration
- Iltutmish favoured slaves over aristocrats for governing positions
- System created loyalty but also instability during succession
Middle Period (1290-1414):
- Khalji and Tughluq rulers continued using slaves and clients
- People of humble birth were raised to high positions
- Iqta system was rigorously implemented
- Land revenue collection became more systematic
Later Period (1414-1526):
- Central control weakened significantly
- Regional rulers became independent
- Administrative innovations continued in smaller kingdoms
The Iqta System Throughout the Sultanate
The Iqta system was used extensively during the Khalji and Tughluq periods:
System Structure
- Iqta: Territories given to military commanders
- Iqtadar/Muqti: The person who held an iqta
- Duration: Short periods before being shifted to prevent local power building
Revenue and Control
- Iqtadars collected revenues as their salary
- They paid soldiers from these revenues
- State accountants checked their revenue collection
- System was most strictly implemented during Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq’s reigns
Land Revenue System Development
Progressive Changes
The land revenue system evolved throughout the sultanate period:
Early Changes:
- Rights of local chieftains to levy taxes were cancelled
- Chieftains were forced to pay taxes to the state
- Land measurement and accounting became systematic
Tax Structure:
- Kharaj: Tax on cultivation (about 50% of produce)
- Tax on cattle
- Tax on houses
Additional Taxes:
- Khums: One-fifth tax on mines and treasure
- Zakat: Alms tax on Muslim traders
- Jizyah: Tax on non-Muslims
Challenges and External Threats
Mongol Invasions Timeline
- 1219: Genghis Khan’s invasion of Transoxiana
- Alauddin Khalji’s reign: Increased Mongol attacks on Delhi
- Early Tughluq period: Continued Mongol threats
- These invasions forced rulers to maintain large standing armies
Territorial Control Issues
Throughout the sultanate period:
- Large parts of subcontinent remained outside control
- Bengal frequently became independent
- Southern India had limited central control
- Forested areas could not be penetrated
- Local chieftains maintained autonomous rule in many regions
Later Period Developments
15th-16th Century Changes
After the Tughluq period:
- Sayyid and Lodi dynasties had limited control
- Independent rulers emerged in:
- Bengal
- Malwa
- Gujarat
- Rajasthan
- South India
New Ruling Groups
This period saw emergence of:
- Afghan rulers
- Rajput dynasties
- Regional kingdoms with effective local administration
Administrative Legacy
The Delhi Sultanate’s administrative innovations influenced later periods:
- Sher Shah Sur’s reforms borrowed from Khalji system
- Mughal administration under Akbar used sultanate models
- Revenue collection methods continued in modified forms
The chronological development of the Delhi Sultanate shows how administrative systems evolved over three centuries, facing constant challenges of territorial control, revenue collection, and external invasions while leaving lasting influences on subsequent Indian political systems.
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