In this chapter we will study about ancient Indian cities and states. This will help you understand how urbanization developed in India.
1. Introduction
Ancient India saw two major waves of urbanisation that shaped our history. The first one was the Harappan civilisation which existed before 2000 BCE. These cities had amazing features like:
- Well-planned structures
- Organised markets
- Advanced sanitation systems
- Their own writing system
But something happened that caused these cities to collapse by early 2nd millennium BCE. People either left these cities or went back to rural life. For about 1000 years, urban life disappeared from India!
Then came the Second Urbanisation in the 1st millennium BCE. It started in the Ganga plains and later spread to other regions including the Indus basin. How do we know about this? From archaeological diggings and ancient texts like Late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literature which talk about these new urban centres. And guess what? This Second Urbanisation still influences modern India today!
2. Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
By the end of 2nd millennium BCE, north India saw the rise of janapadas. These were territories where people from same clan lived together, sharing language and customs. The word “janapada” in Sanskrit literally means “where people set foot” – isn’t that interesting?
Each janapada had a rājā (ruler) who led the territory. As trade networks grew bigger, these janapadas started connecting with each other.
Around 8th or 7th century BCE, some janapadas joined together to form mahajanapadas – which were bigger and more powerful states. Ancient texts mention 16 mahajanapadas that stretched from Gandhāra in northwest to Aśhmaka in central India.
Many mahajanapadas developed in the Ganga plains because:
- The land was very fertile
- Iron ore was easily available
- Trade networks were well-established
Some of the most powerful mahajanapadas were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti. Their capitals were large cities with strong fortifications, moats and narrow gateways for protection. What’s amazing is that many of these ancient capitals are still cities today!
3. Governance Systems
The janapadas had assemblies called sabhā or samiti where imp matters were discussed. These assemblies came from Vedic traditions and included clan elders who gave advice to the rājā.
The rājās were expected to listen to the assembly’s advice and not just do whatever they wanted. Some texts even say that assemblies could remove rājās who weren’t doing a good job!
When mahajanapadas formed, they expanded on these governance principles. Most mahajanapadas were monarchies with hereditary rulers. The rājās had ultimate power but were supported by ministers and assemblies. Their duties included:
- Collecting taxes
- Maintaining law and order
- Building fortifications
- Keeping armies
Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti were examples of strong monarchical states.
But not all mahajanapadas were monarchies! Vajji and Malla had democratic systems where the sabhā or samiti had significant decision-making power. Decisions, including selecting the rājā, were made through discussion or voting. These states were called ganas or sanghas and functioned like early republics – among the earliest democratic systems in the world!
4. Innovations of the Period
This period brought many changes to India. New schools of thought emerged including late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Scholars, monks and nuns travelled across India spreading their teachings. Pilgrimages helped in spreading literature and ideas.
Indian art also began to develop during this time and later flourished during empire periods.
Technology played a big role in urbanisation:
| Time Period | Metal Technology | Tools and Usage |
|---|---|---|
| Harappan Civilisation | Copper and bronze | Basic tools and weapons |
| Second Urbanisation | Iron | Advanced agricultural tools, sharper weapons |
Iron technology was mastered by early 2nd millennium BCE, and by late 2nd millennium BCE, iron tools were used everywhere. Iron tools improved agriculture and allowed farming on larger scale. Iron weapons like swords and spears were sharper and lighter than previous weapons.
There’s evidence that mahajanapadas fought with each other. These military campaigns and alliances eventually led to formation of new kingdoms and empires.
Another imp innovation was the introduction of coins! Early coins were made of silver with punch-marks of different symbols. Later, people started using copper, gold and other metals for coins. Each mahajanapada issued its own coins, but these coins were accepted across regions. Coins made trade easier within India and with other parts of the world.
5. Varna-Jāti System
Complex societies usually organise themselves into groups based on occupation or class. These groups handle different aspects like governance, religion, trade, farming, crafts, etc. Ideally, all groups should work together harmoniously, but often inequalities develop.
Indian society developed the varna-jāti system:
Jāti: This was a community tied to a specific profession, like farming or metal work. Skills were passed down from parents to children. Jātis were further divided into sub-jātis with their own customs for marriage or rituals.
Varna: This concept came from Vedic texts and had four categories:
- Brahmins: Preserved knowledge and performed rituals
- Kshatriyas: Defended society and engaged in warfare
- Vaishyas: Increased wealth through trade, business or agriculture
- Shudras: Worked as artisans, craftspeople or labourers
The English word “caste” might refer to varna, jāti, or the entire system.
Early evidence shows that people could change their occupations. Natural disasters sometimes forced communities to take up new professions. Even some Brahmins took up trade or military roles when needed.
The varna-jāti system helped organise economic and social activities. But over time, it became more rigid and led to inequalities. Lower jātis and excluded communities faced discrimination. The system became even more rigid during British rule.
It’s imp to note that while varna-jāti was significant, it wasn’t the only way society was organised.
6. Developments in Other Regions
Communication routes opened up for trade, pilgrimages and military campaigns:
- Uttarapatha: Connected northwest to eastern India via Ganga plains
- Dakşhinapatha: Ran from Kauśhāmbi, through Vindhya Range, to south India
- Lateral roads: Connected to western and eastern coastal ports
Coastal ports became busy trade centres. In the east, cities like Śhiśhupalgarh emerged as Kalinga’s capital. This city had a square layout, strong fortifications and broad streets.
Southern cities began developing around 400 BCE. The Chola, Chera, and Pāndya kingdoms formed in south India. These regions were rich in:
- Gold
- Spices
- Precious stones
Southern kingdoms traded with other Indian regions and also with overseas kingdoms. Ancient Tamil literature mentions these southern kingdoms and their kings.
By 300–200 BCE, the entire Subcontinent was interconnected. Goods, culture and ideas moved not just across Indian regions but also to Central and Southeast Asia.
By 300 BCE, the mahajanapadas had disappeared, replaced by new political developments.
7. Questions and activities
- Consider the quotation at the start of the chapter and discuss in several groups. Compare your observations and conclusions on what Kautilya recommends for a kingdom. Is it very different today?:
- Kautilya recommends a kingdom with fortified capitals and frontier towns, self-sustaining land with resources like mines and forests, reliable water sources, good roads, and a productive economy with diverse commodities; these ideas remain relevant today as modern nations prioritise strong infrastructure, economic diversity, resource management, and disaster preparedness, though governance now involves democratic systems and global trade, unlike Kautilya’s monarchical focus.
- According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society?:
- In early Vedic society, rulers in janapadas were advised by assemblies called sabhā or samiti, and incompetent rulers could be removed by the assembly; in mahajanapadas, most rulers were hereditary in monarchical states, but in democratic ganas like Vajji and Malla, the sabhā or samiti selected rulers through discussion or voting, indicating a mix of hereditary and elective systems.
- Imagine you are a historian studying ancient India. What types of sources (archaeological, literary, etc.) would you use to learn more about the mahajanapadas? Explain how each source might contribute to your understanding.:
- As a historian, I would use archaeological sources like excavations of fortified cities, coins, and iron tools to understand mahajanapada urban planning, trade, and technology; literary sources such as late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain texts to gain insights into governance, culture, and societal structure; and inscriptions or oral traditions to uncover details about rulers and events, with each source providing a unique perspective to create a comprehensive picture of mahajanapada life.
- Why was the development of iron metallurgy so important for the growth of urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE? You may use points from the chapter but also from your knowledge or imagination.:
- Iron metallurgy was crucial for urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE because it enabled the production of stronger, lighter tools that expanded agriculture, supporting larger populations in cities; iron weapons like swords and spears improved military capabilities, aiding state expansion and defence; and iron’s widespread use in construction and crafts facilitated the building of fortified urban centres, fostering trade and economic growth, which were essential for the Second Urbanisation’s development.
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