1. Introduction
The 1857 revolt against British rule was a turning point in India’s history. The East India Company’s policies had affected many groups including kings, queens, peasants, landlords, tribals and soldiers. People started resisting these harmful policies and actions which led to the largest anti-colonial uprising of the 19th century. What began as a sepoy mutiny soon spread and became a popular rebellion involving diverse groups across northern India.
2. Loss of Power for Nawabs and Rajas
The Indian rulers had been losing their authority since the mid-18th century:
• British stationed Residents (political agents) in royal courts • Rulers’ armed forces were disbanded • Revenue and territories were gradually taken away • Rani Lakshmibai’s request for recognition of her adopted son was rejected • Nana Saheb’s plea for his father’s pension was denied • Company confidently rejected these requests • Awadh was annexed in 1856 citing “misgovernment” • The Mughal dynasty was systematically targeted for extinction
The End of Mughal Rule: • Mughal king’s name was removed from Company coins • Bahadur Shah Zafar’s family was ordered to leave Red Fort • Zafar was declared the last Mughal king in 1856 • His descendants would be called princes, not kings
3. Peasant and Sepoy Discontent
The common people and soldiers were equally unhappy with British rule:
Peasant Problems: • Resented high taxes and rigid revenue collection • Many lost lands to moneylenders due to unpaid loans
Sepoy Grievances: • Low pay and poor service conditions • New rules violated their religious beliefs • Crossing the sea was believed to cause loss of caste • In 1824, sepoys refused to take sea route to Burma • When they agreed to go by land route, they were still punished • 1856 law required new sepoys to serve overseas • Sepoys, often from peasant families, shared the anger of rural India • Village grievances easily spread to sepoy ranks
4. Reactions to British Reforms
The British attempted to reform Indian society in ways that created resentment:
British Reforms: • Banned practices like sati • Promoted widow remarriage • Actively encouraged English education • Allowed Christian missionaries to operate freely • Missionaries could own land and property after 1830 • 1850 law made conversion to Christianity easier • Converts could inherit ancestral property
Indian Reactions: • Many Indians felt British were attacking their religion • Believed customs and traditions were being destroyed • Some educated Indians supported these social reforms
5. People’s Perceptions of British Rule
Indian accounts show how people viewed British actions:
Vishnubhatt Godse’s Account: • Sepoys believed British aimed to destroy Hindu and Muslim religions • Claimed British had made 84 rules against religions • Kings and princes rejected these rules in a Calcutta meeting • Planned a war of religion against the British
Sitaram Pande’s Memoirs: • Highlighted sepoy distrust of British • Seizure of Awadh fueled sepoy anger • Agents of the Nawab and Delhi king incited mutiny • Spread lies to turn sepoys against British
The Cartridge Issue: • Rumors about greased cartridges sparked unrest • Cartridges allegedly coated with cow and pig fat • This would defile both Hindus and Muslims • Sepoys believed British aimed to convert them by force
6. Mutiny Turns into Popular Uprising
The revolt that began as a military mutiny transformed into a widespread resistance:
• Required organization, communication and confidence • Started in Meerut and threatened Company’s rule • Mangal Pandey was hanged for attacking British officers • Meerut sepoys refused to do cartridge drill • 85 sepoys were jailed and sentenced to ten years
The Spark at Meerut: • On 10 May 1857, sepoys freed their jailed comrades • Killed British officers and seized arms • Declared war on firangis (foreigners) • Marched to Delhi and sought Bahadur Shah Zafar • Delhi regiments joined and proclaimed Zafar as their leader
Zafar’s Reluctant Leadership: • Accepted leadership reluctantly • Wrote to rulers urging confederacy against British • Smaller rulers saw chance to regain power • Zafar’s support inspired widespread rebellion
7. Spread of the Uprising
The revolt quickly spread across north India:
• Mutinies spread to Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow • Regiments joined rebel forces at key centers • Villagers, zamindars and chiefs rallied against British
Imp Leaders of the Revolt: • Nana Saheb expelled British from Kanpur and proclaimed himself Peshwa • Birjis Qadr was declared Nawab in Lucknow • Begum Hazrat Mahal led the Lucknow uprising • Rani Lakshmibai fought alongside Tantia Tope in Jhansi • Rani Avantibai led an army in Mandla • Ahmadullah Shah raised forces in Faizabad • Bakht Khan led fighters in Delhi • Kunwar Singh battled British in Bihar
Success of Rebels: • British were outnumbered and defeated in many battles • Rebel victories boosted public confidence • Awadh saw especially intense popular uprising • Villages and zamindars resisted British fiercely
8. British Response
The Company used brutal force to crush the revolt:
• Brought reinforcements from England • Passed laws for easy conviction of rebels • Recaptured Delhi in September 1857
Fate of Key Leaders: • Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried and sentenced to life • Exiled to Rangoon with his wife in 1858 • Zafar died in Rangoon jail in 1862 • Lucknow was taken in March 1858 • Rani Lakshmibai was killed in June 1858 • Rani Avantibai died fighting in Kheri • Tantia Tope fought a guerrilla war but was captured and killed in April 1859
British Tactics: • Offered rewards to loyal landholders • Promised safety to rebels who submitted • Hundreds of rebels were tried and hanged • Fought for two years to fully suppress the uprising
9. Aftermath and Policy Changes
After regaining control by 1859, the British introduced major changes:
Administrative Changes: • 1858 Act transferred Company powers to British Crown • Secretary of State for India was appointed • Advised by India Council • Governor-General was now titled Viceroy
Policies Towards Rulers: • Assured rulers against future annexations • Allowed succession, including adopted heirs • Rulers had to accept British Queen as sovereign
Military Reorganization: • Reduced Indian soldiers in the army • Increased European soldiers • Recruited Gurkhas, Sikhs, Pathans over others • Confiscated Muslim lands and treated them with hostility
Other Changes: • Pledged to respect religious and social customs • Protected landlords and zamindars’ land rights • Marked a new phase in British rule in India
10. Khurda Uprising (1817)
An earlier anti-British uprising occurred in Khurda, Orissa:
Background: • Khurda was a prosperous kingdom with 105 garhs and many villages • King Mukunda Dev II lost territories to Marathas • Sought British help during Anglo-Maratha conflict • British annexed Khurda in 1803 • Deposed Mukunda Dev, gave him only temple rights
Causes of Uprising: • High revenue demands • Resumed service tenures, affected Paiks (soldiers) • Ignored land’s productive capacity • Sold defaulters’ lands to speculators • Introduced sicca rupee and salt monopoly • Raised food and salt prices • Corrupt police worsened conditions
The Rebellion: • Buxi Jagabandhu led the Paik uprising • Attacked Banpur police station in 1817 • Killed over 100 people and looted government money • Zamindars and ryots joined no-rent campaign • Seized Puri and declared Mukunda Dev as ruler • Jagannath Temple priests supported the Paiks
British Response: • Imposed Martial Law • Captured the king and sent him to Cuttack • Jagabandhu disrupted British communications • British offered rewards for his arrest • Killed many Paiks and offered amnesty • Uprising contained by May 1817 • Jagabandhu continued resistance until 1825
Aftermath: • British adopted more lenient policies • Reduced salt prices and reformed police • Restored lands and temple rights to king’s son • This was the first major anti-British uprising in Orissa
11. Study Questions
1. What was the demand of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi that was refused by the British?
Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi demanded that the British recognize her adopted son as the heir to the kingdom after her husband’s death. According to Hindu custom, an adopted son had all the rights of a biological son, but the British refused to accept this. They followed the Doctrine of Lapse, which allowed them to take over kingdoms without a “natural” heir. This refusal was one of the factors that led Rani Lakshmibai to join the revolt against British rule.
2. What did the British do to protect the interests of those who converted to Christianity?
The British passed a law in 1850 that allowed Indians who converted to Christianity to inherit the property of their ancestors. Before this law, converts often lost their inheritance rights as conversion was seen as leaving the family and its traditions. This new law made conversion easier and less financially risky. The British also allowed Christian missionaries to operate freely and own land and property after 1830. These policies were seen by many Indians as an attempt to promote Christianity and attack their traditional religions.
3. What objections did the sepoys have to the new cartridges that they were asked to use?
The sepoys objected to the new cartridges because they were rumored to be greased with the fat of cows and pigs. Using these cartridges required biting off the ends, which would mean contact with the forbidden fat. Cow fat was sacred to Hindus, while pig fat was forbidden for Muslims. This would defile both religious groups and violate their religious beliefs. Sepoys believed this was a deliberate British strategy to force them to break their religious rules and make them vulnerable to conversion to Christianity. This issue became the immediate trigger for the revolt of 1857.
4. How did the last Mughal emperor live the last years of his life?
The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, lived his final years in misery and exile. After the British recaptured Delhi in September 1857, he was tried for treason and sentenced to life imprisonment. In October 1858, he was exiled to Rangoon (now Yangon, Myanmar) with his wife. He spent his last years as a prisoner, far from his homeland, writing poetry about his sorrow and the loss of his kingdom. Zafar died in the Rangoon jail in November 1862, a sad end to the once-mighty Mughal dynasty that had ruled India for over 300 years.
5. What could be the reasons for the confidence of the British rulers about their position in India before May 1857?
The British were overly confident about their position in India before May 1857 for several reasons. They had successfully defeated Indian powers and annexed territories like Awadh without much resistance. Their military was considered superior, and they controlled many Indian rulers through their Resident system. The British had also successfully crushed previous rebellions, so they believed they could handle any disturbances.
They thought issues like the cartridge controversy would quickly subside. They also underestimated the extent of discontent among sepoys and civilians. This overconfidence made them ignore warning signs and led to their unpreparedness when the revolt broke out.
6. What impact did Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support to the rebellion have on the people and the ruling families?
Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support had a huge impact on the rebellion. Though he joined reluctantly, his involvement gave the rebellion legitimacy and a symbolic leader. The Mughal name still commanded respect across India, and Zafar’s support inspired people to fight with greater confidence. Ruling families who had lost power to the British saw an opportunity to regain their territories under Mughal authority.
Leaders like Nana Saheb acknowledged Zafar’s leadership while proclaiming themselves rulers of their regions. His support transformed what might have remained a military mutiny into a political rebellion with a vision of restoring pre-colonial power structures. It gave people hope and courage to stand against British rule.
7. How did the British succeed in securing the submission of the rebel landowners of Awadh?
The British secured the submission of Awadh’s rebel landowners through a combination of force, threats, and incentives. They used military force to defeat rebel strongholds and executed hundreds of rebels to create fear. They offered rewards and land rights to landholders who remained loyal or switched sides. The British also promised safety and protection to rebels who submitted without killing British people.
By 1859, they had managed to isolate major leaders and defeat their forces. The brutal suppression of the revolt also discouraged further resistance. After the revolt, the British changed their policies to protect landlords’ interests, ensuring their future loyalty by guaranteeing their land rights.
8. In what ways did the British change their policies as a result of the rebellion of 1857?
After the rebellion, the British made several major policy changes. The Government of India Act 1858 transferred power from the East India Company to the British Crown. A Secretary of State for India was appointed with an advisory India Council. The Governor-General was now called Viceroy. The British assured Indian rulers they wouldn’t annex more territories and recognized succession including adopted heirs. They reorganized the army to have fewer Indian soldiers and more European troops, and favored “loyal” groups like Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans.
They showed hostility toward Muslims, confiscating their lands. The British now pledged to respect religious and social customs and protected landlords’ and zamindars’ land rights. These changes marked a new, more conservative phase in British rule focused on stability rather than reform.
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