This chapter starts with how kingdoms changed India long ago. It then explains tribal societies living outside caste rules in forests and hills. We learn about big tribes like Gonds and Ahoms, and nomads like Banjaras who moved goods. It shows how tribes mixed with castes and made states. Finally, it sums up their impact and changes over time.
1. Historical Context and Societal Changes
- Rise and Fall of Kingdoms:
- Over centuries, kingdoms in India rose and declined.
- This happened alongside growth in towns and villages.
- Development in Arts and Economy:
- New arts and crafts flourished during this time.
- Political and economic changes shaped the subcontinent.
- Uneven Social Change:
- Social changes occurred but varied across regions.
- Different societies evolved in their own unique ways.
- Varna-Based Society:
- Many areas followed varna rules set by Brahmanas.
- Big kingdom rulers accepted these social divisions.
- Widening Social Gaps:
- Differences between rich and poor grew larger.
- Under Delhi Sultans and Mughals, class gaps increased.
2. Understanding Tribal Societies
- Definition of Tribes:
- Some groups didn’t follow varna rules or rituals.
- They avoided the unequal classes of caste society.
- Unity Through Kinship:
- Tribes were held together by family ties called kinship.
- This bond made their communities strong.
- Where Tribes Lived:
- Tribes settled in forests, hills, and deserts.
- These were hard-to-reach places across India.
- Tribal Livelihoods:
- Many tribes farmed land for their living.
- Others hunted animals or gathered forest food.
- Some raised animals like sheep and goats.
- Most combined these to use nature’s resources well.
- Nomadic Lifestyle:
- Certain tribes moved from place to place.
- They were known as nomadic for this reason.
- Control of Resources:
- Tribes shared land and pastures among families.
- They followed their own rules for division.
3. Tribal Interactions with Caste Societies
- Clashes with Caste Groups:
- Tribes sometimes fought stronger caste societies.
- These conflicts arose over land and power.
- Preserving Freedom:
- Despite fights, tribes kept their own culture.
- They stayed free from outside control.
- Mutual Dependence:
- Tribes and caste societies relied on each other.
- This mix of conflict and need led to changes.
4. Exploring Tribal Identities and Histories
- Limited Written Records:
- Old historians wrote little about tribal people.
- Tribes themselves didn’t keep written histories.
- Rich Oral Traditions:
- Tribes passed customs and stories by word of mouth.
- These went from one generation to the next.
- Modern Historical Use:
- Today’s historians use oral tales to study tribes.
- This helps uncover their past lives.
- Tribal Presence Across India:
- Tribes lived in nearly every part of India.
- Their influence changed over time.
- Powerful Tribal Groups:
- Some tribes ruled large areas strongly.
- They played big roles in their regions.
5. Major Tribal Communities by Region
- Punjab Tribes:
- Khokhars were powerful in Punjab in the 1200s and 1300s.
- Later, Gakkhars took over as a key tribe.
- Gakkhar Leadership:
- Kamal Khan Gakkhar led the Gakkhars.
- Akbar made him a noble, called a mansabdar.
- Multan and Sind:
- Langahs and Arghuns controlled Multan and Sind.
- Mughals later defeated and ruled them.
- North-West Tribes:
- Balochis were a large tribe in the north-west.
- They had many clans with different chiefs.
- Himalayan Tribes:
- Gaddis were shepherds in the western Himalayas.
- They moved with their animals for grazing.
- North-East Tribes:
- Nagas and Ahoms dominated the north-east.
- Many other tribes lived there too.
- Bihar and Jharkhand:
- Cheros formed chiefdoms by the 1100s.
- Raja Man Singh attacked them in 1591 under Akbar.
- Chero Struggles:
- Cheros resisted but lost much to Man Singh.
- Aurangzeb’s Mughals later took their forts fully.
- Other Eastern Tribes:
- Mundas and Santals lived in Bihar and Jharkhand.
- They spread to Orissa and Bengal too.
- Maharashtra and Karnataka:
- Kolis and Berads lived in these highlands.
- Kolis also settled in parts of Gujarat.
- Southern Tribes:
- Koragas, Vetars, and Maravars lived in south India.
- Many other tribes were present there.
- Bhils in Central India:
- Bhils spread across western and central India.
- They lived in places like Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.
- Bhils’ Ways of Life:
- By the late 1500s, many Bhils turned to farming.
- Some became zamindars, owning land.
- Others stayed hunter-gatherers, moving often.
- Gonds’ Territory:
- Gonds lived in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.
- Their land was called Gondwana.
6. Nomadic and Mobile Lifestyles
- Pastoral Nomads:
- These nomads moved far with their animals.
- They used milk and ghee to live.
- Trade with Settled People:
- They gave wool and ghee to farmers.
- Farmers gave them grain and cloth back.
- Moving Goods:
- Nomads carried goods on their animals.
- They sold these as they travelled.
- Banjaras’ Role:
- Banjaras were top trader-nomads.
- Their travel group was called a tanda.
- Banjaras’ Jobs:
- Alauddin Khalji used them to bring grain to cities.
- Jahangir said they sold grain in towns.
- Helping the Army:
- Banjaras fed Mughal armies in wars.
- They used up to 100,000 bullocks for this.
- Peter Mundy’s Account:
- Peter Mundy saw a tanda in the 1600s.
- It had 14,000 oxen with wheat and rice.
- Banjaras’ Family Life:
- They took wives and kids on journeys.
- A tanda could have 600-700 people.
- Travel and Trade:
- They bought cheap grain and sold it high.
- They moved slowly, 6-7 miles a day in cool times.
- Other Mobile Groups:
- Some tribes sold cattle and horses to the rich.
- Pedlars sold small things like ropes and sacks.
- Entertainers on the Move:
- Some castes performed in towns and villages.
- This was how they earned their living.
7. Evolution of Society and Castes
- Need for New Skills:
- As society grew, new skills were needed.
- This created smaller castes called jatis.
- Tribes Becoming Jatis:
- Many tribes joined caste society as jatis.
- Brahmanas placed them in the system.
- Artisans as Jatis:
- Smiths, carpenters, and masons became jatis.
- Jatis replaced varna as the main order.
- Rathakaras’ Roles:
- In the 1100s, a Tamil sabha set rathakaras’ jobs.
- They made chariots and built temples.
- Rise of Rajputs:
- New Rajput clans grew strong by the 1100s-1200s.
- They came from tribes like Hunas and Chalukyas.
- Rajput Rule:
- These clans took over farming areas.
- They used wealth to make strong states.
- Tribes to Rajputs:
- With Brahmana help, some tribes became Rajputs.
- Only top tribal families joined the rulers.
- Lower Jatis for Most:
- Most tribal people became lower jatis.
- They stayed below the ruling class.
- Rejecting Caste Rules:
- Punjab, Sind, and north-west tribes took Islam.
- They refused caste and strict Hinduism.
8. Detailed Study: The Gonds
- Gondwana Home:
- Gonds lived in a forest region called Gondwana.
- They farmed by shifting fields often.
- Clan System:
- The large Gond tribe had many clans.
- Each clan had a raja or rai as leader.
- Kingdom Growth:
- As Delhi Sultans weakened, Gond states grew.
- Big kingdoms ruled over smaller chiefs.
- Garha Katanga’s Size:
- The Akbar Nama notes Garha Katanga had 70,000 villages.
- It was a major Gond kingdom then.
- Organised Rule:
- Gond kingdoms became more centralised.
- They divided land into garhs run by clans.
- Garh Breakdown:
- A garh had chaurasis of 84 villages each.
- Chaurasis had barhots of 12 villages.
- Society Shift:
- Gond society was equal at first but changed.
- Classes formed as states got bigger.
- Brahmana Role:
- Gond rajas gave land to Brahmanas.
- This raised Brahmana power among Gonds.
- Rajput Ambition:
- Gond chiefs aimed to be Rajputs.
- Aman Das took the title Sangram Shah.
- Durgawati’s Story:
- Sangram Shah’s son Dalpat married Durgawati.
- After Dalpat died, she ruled for her son Bir Narain.
- Durgawati’s Reign:
- She expanded and strengthened the kingdom.
- In 1565, Mughals under Asaf Khan attacked.
- Fight and Fall:
- Durgawati fought bravely but was defeated.
- She and her son died rather than surrender.
- Wealth from Elephants:
- Garha Katanga grew rich selling elephants.
- Mughals took coins and elephants after victory.
- After the Loss:
- Mughals kept some land and gave rest to Chandra Shah.
- Gond power weakened but survived a while.
9. Detailed Study: The Ahoms
- Arrival in India:
- Ahoms came from Myanmar to Brahmaputra valley in the 1200s.
- They beat bhuiyans to start a new state.
- Expanding Land:
- They took Chhutiyas’ land in 1523.
- In 1581, they captured Koch-Hajo too.
- Use of Weapons:
- Ahoms used firearms from the 1530s.
- By the 1660s, they made gunpowder and cannons.
- Mughal Clash:
- In 1662, Mir Jumla’s Mughals attacked Ahoms.
- Ahoms lost but Mughals couldn’t stay long.
- Forced Workers:
- Ahoms used paiks, forced workers from villages.
- A census set who went in turns.
- Moving People:
- They shifted people from full to empty areas.
- This split up Ahom clans over time.
- Stronger Rule:
- By the early 1600s, Ahom rule got centralised.
- It became better organised.
- Lachit’s Victory:
- Lachit Barphukan beat Mughals in 1671.
- He won at Saraighat near Guwahati.
- Battle Strategy:
- Mughals had a big army with cannons.
- Lachit used the river well to win.
- Men’s Duties:
- All adult men fought in Ahom wars.
- In peace, they built dams and canals.
- Rice Growing:
- Ahoms brought new rice farming ways.
- This improved their food supply.
- Khel Clans:
- Ahom society had khels as clans.
- A khel managed several villages.
- Land Sharing:
- Village communities gave land to peasants.
- The king needed approval to take it.
- Early Beliefs:
- Ahoms first worshipped tribal gods.
- Later, Brahmanas brought Hinduism in the 1600s.
- Hinduism Growth:
- King Sib Singh made Hinduism strong from 1714-1744.
- Old beliefs still stayed alive too.
- Culture Boost:
- Ahom kings gave land to poets and scholars.
- They supported theatre and translations.
- Written History:
- Ahoms wrote buranjis as histories.
- First in Ahom, then in Assamese language.
10. Summary of Tribal and Societal Evolution
- Mixing Societies:
- Tribes and varna society mixed often.
- This changed both over many years.
- Varied Tribal Lives:
- Tribes had different ways to live and work.
- Some joined castes, some stayed apart.
- No Caste for Some:
- Certain tribes rejected caste and strict Hinduism.
- They kept their own traditions.
- Rise of Tribal States:
- Some tribes built big states with good rule.
- This gave them political strength.
- Fights with Kingdoms:
- Strong tribal states clashed with big kingdoms.
- This came as they grew larger.
11. Questions and Answers for Review
11.1 Recall Facts
- Matching Terms:
- Garh: Gond clan area.
- Khel: Ahom clan.
- Tanda: Banjara caravan.
- Chaurasi: 84 villages in Gond states.
- Paik: Forced labourer in Ahom state.
- Fill in the Blanks:
- (a) New castes in varnas were called jatis.
- (b) Buranjis were Ahom historical works.
- © Akbar Nama says Garha Katanga had 70,000 villages.
- (d) Tribal states gave land to poets and scholars.
- True or False:
- (a) Tribal societies had rich oral traditions—True.
- Stories were told, not written.
- (b) No tribes in the north-west—False.
- Balochis lived there.
- © Chaurasi had cities—False.
- They were village groups.
- (d) Bhils in the north-east—False.
- They were in central India.
- (a) Tribal societies had rich oral traditions—True.
- Nomad-Farmer Exchanges:
- Nomads gave wool and ghee.
- Farmers gave grain and cloth.
11.2 Understand Concepts
- Ahom Administration:
- Paiks did forced work from villages.
- A census moved people to balance land.
- Khels ran villages with central rule.
- Men fought wars and built projects.
- Varna Society Changes:
- Jatis formed for new skills in varnas.
- Tribes joined as jatis, artisans too.
- Jatis took over varna’s place.
- Rajputs came from tribal clans.
- Tribal State Shifts:
- Equal tribes got classes with states.
- Central rule and Brahmanas grew strong.
- Leaders aimed for Rajput rank.
- Most became lower jatis.
11.3 Discuss Ideas
- Banjaras’ Value:
- Banjaras moved grain for cities and armies.
- They kept trade and food flowing.
- Gonds vs. Ahoms:
- Gonds farmed forests and sold elephants.
- Ahoms from Myanmar used guns and paiks.
- Both built big states and fought Mughals.
- They showed tribal power alike.
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