1. Introduction
The tribal communities of India faced many challenges during British rule. This chapter talks about tribal life under colonial control and focuses on the movement led by Birsa Munda in 1895. Birsa was born in the Munda tribe in Chottanagpur and claimed he had a divine mission to save his people. He promised to free tribals from dikus (outsiders) who were exploiting them. His followers included people from Munda, Santhal and Oraon tribes who believed Birsa could solve their problems.
During British rule, tribal communities faced serious threats to their livelihood and religion. Their traditional ways of life slowly disappeared as colonial policies changed everything they knew. The British brought significant changes that affected tribal existence in many ways.
2. Tribal Lifestyles
Tribal groups in India had very diverse occupations and lacked the sharp caste divisions seen in mainstream society. They shared strong kinship ties within their tribes though they had social and economic differences among themselves.
Different Forms of Tribal Cultivation:
• Jhum Cultivation (Shifting Agriculture)
- Practiced mainly in hilly and forested areas
- Process involved clearing land by burning vegetation
- Ash was used to fertilize soil
- Seeds were scattered without ploughing (broadcasting method)
- Fields were left fallow for several years to recover fertility
- Required free movement through forests
• Hunting and Gathering
- Many tribes lived off forests resources
- Khonds in Orissa hunted collectively
- Gathered fruits, roots and medicinal herbs
- Extracted oil from sal and mahua seeds
- Supplied kusum and palash for dyeing
- Exchanged forest produce for rice and other grains
- Did odd jobs like carrying loads
- Some tribes like Baigas refused to work for others as they saw labour for others as below their dignity
• Pastoralism
- Some tribes herded cattle, sheep and goats
- Moved seasonally in search of good pasture
- Examples included Van Gujjars, Gaddis and Bakarwals
• Settled Agriculture
- Some tribal groups used ploughs for cultivation
- Mundas owned land as a clan
- Some became chiefs and rented out land to others
3. Tribal Dependence on Trade
Tribal communities depended on traders for goods they couldn’t produce themselves. They sold forest produce in local markets but often faced exploitation:
• Traders sold goods at very high prices • Moneylenders charged extremely high interest rates • This trading system led to debt and poverty • Tribals saw traders and moneylenders as enemies
Case Study: Silk Trade Exploitation The Santhals in Hazaribagh were exploited through the silk trade. They grew cocoons but had to sell them at very low prices. Traders would then resell these cocoons at five times the original price. While middlemen made huge profits, the tribal producers earned very little from their hard work.
4. Impact of Colonial Rule
British rule completely disrupted tribal lives in many ways:
Changes in Tribal Administration: • Tribal chiefs lost their administrative power • They kept land titles and could rent out lands • Had to pay tribute to British and enforce their laws • Lost authority among their own people
British Attitude Towards Tribals: • British disliked mobile tribal groups • Wanted settled cultivators who could be controlled and taxed • Introduced land settlements to collect revenue • Defined land rights and fixed revenue amounts • Considered jhum cultivation as primitive and uncivilized
Problems with Settled Agriculture: • Settled plough cultivation failed in dry areas • Jhum cultivators faced poor yields on permanent fields • Protests eventually led to limited jhum rights in some areas
Forest Laws and Restrictions: • New laws declared forests as state property • Created “Reserved Forests” with restricted tribal access • Banned jhum cultivation, hunting and gathering • Forced tribals to seek work elsewhere • Created forest villages for tribal labour • Tribals worked for Forest Department • Protected forests in exchange for land use rights
5. Exploitation and Labour
Colonial rule opened tribal areas to outside exploitation:
• Traders and moneylenders entered forest areas • Bought produce at low prices, offered high-interest loans and meagre wages • Tribals faced severe exploitation and received very little payment
Labour in Plantations and Mines: • Tribals were recruited to work in tea plantations and mines • Many worked in Assam tea plantations • Others laboured in Jharkhand coal mines • Contractors paid extremely low wages • Workers were often prevented from returning home • Mine work was dangerous and deadly • Over 2,000 workers died annually in mining accidents
6. Tribal Resistance
Tribals didn’t accept these changes quietly. They rebelled against colonial policies:
Forms of Resistance: • Disobeyed forest laws and continued their practices secretly • Engaged in various rebellions across India
Imp Tribal Rebellions: • Kols revolt (1831–32) • Santhals rebellion (1855) • Bastar Rebellion (1910) • Warli Revolt (1940) • Songram Sangma’s revolt in Assam (1906) • Forest satyagraha (1930s)
Birsa Munda’s movement was particularly significant as it showed tribal capacity to organize and protest. These movements forced the British to implement some policies to protect tribal lands.
7. Birsa Munda’s Movement
Early Life: • Born in 1870s in a poor Munda family • Grew up in poverty and had to move for work • Heard stories of past Munda uprisings • Attended missionary school and heard Christian sermons • Was influenced by a Vaishnav preacher • Valued purity and piety, wore the sacred thread
His Vision and Goals: • Aimed to reform tribal society • Urged Mundas to stop drinking liquor and practicing witchcraft • Opposed missionaries, landlords and dikus • Envisioned a golden age (satyug) of tribal independence • Described a past of honest, self-sufficient life • Wanted tribals to cultivate their own land • Sought to drive out dikus and the government • Aimed to establish Munda Raj
Movement and Aftermath: • Arrested in 1895 for rioting and jailed • Released in 1897 and rallied more support • Used symbols like white flag to represent Birsa Raj • His followers attacked police stations and churches • Raided properties of moneylenders and zamindars • Birsa died of cholera in prison in 1900 • His movement forced the government to implement land protection laws • Demonstrated tribal resistance to injustice
8. Study Questions
Fill in the blanks:
- (a) The British described the tribal people as ____________.
- (b) The method of sowing seeds in jhum cultivation is known as ____________.
- (c) The tribal chiefs got ____________ in central India under the British land settlements.
- (d) Tribals went to work in the ____________ of Assam and the ____________ in Bihar.
Answers:
- (a) The British described the tribal people as wild and savage.
- (b) The method of sowing seeds in jhum cultivation is known as broadcasting.
- (c) The tribal chiefs got land titles in central India under the British land settlements.
- (d) Tribals went to work in the tea plantations of Assam and the coal mines in Bihar.
State whether true or false:
- (a) Jhum cultivators plough the land and sow seeds.
- (b) Cocoons were bought from the Santhals and sold by the traders at five times the purchase price.
- (c) Birsa urged his followers to purify themselves, give up drinking liquor and stop believing in witchcraft and sorcery.
- (d) The British wanted to preserve the tribal way of life.
Answers:
- (a) False. Jhum cultivators scattered seeds without ploughing the land.
- (b) True. Traders bought cocoons from Santhals at low prices and sold them at five times the price.
- (c) True. Birsa aimed to reform tribal society by promoting purity and discouraging these practices.
- (d) False. The British wanted tribals to settle and follow their laws, disrupting traditional tribal life.
Answer these questions:
1. What problems did shifting cultivators face under British rule?
Shifting cultivators faced many problems under British rule. The British introduced land settlements that restricted their movement. They forced tribals to practice settled agriculture which wasn’t suitable for the dry soil in many areas. The government banned jhum cultivation in Reserved Forests and pushed tribals to look for work elsewhere as they lost access to forest resources. When tribals tried settled farming, they faced poor yields because the soil wasn’t suitable for continuous cultivation. Even though some tribals protested and secured limited rights to practice jhum cultivation, their traditional lifestyle was seriously disrupted.
2. How did the powers of tribal chiefs change under colonial rule?
Under colonial rule, tribal chiefs lost most of their administrative power. They were forced to follow British laws, pay tribute to the colonial government, and control their people for the British. While they kept land titles and could still rent out lands, they lost the respect and authority they once had in their communities. The British made these chiefs into rent collectors and intermediaries rather than true leaders. Many chiefs became unpopular among their own people as they were seen as working for the colonial masters instead of protecting tribal interests.
3. What accounts for the anger of the tribals against the dikus?
Tribals were angry at dikus (outsiders) because traders and moneylenders charged extremely high prices and interest rates, which led to debt and poverty. The British policies destroyed traditional tribal land systems and restricted forest access. Dikus exploited tribal labour in plantations and mines for very low wages. All these factors threatened tribal livelihoods and culture. The silk trade in Hazaribagh showed how middlemen made huge profits while tribals earned very little from their hard work. Contractors in mines and plantations prevented workers from returning home and forced them to work in dangerous conditions where thousands died every year. Dikus represented exploitation and destruction of tribal way of life.
4. What was Birsa’s vision of a golden age? Why do you think such a vision appealed to the people of the region?
Birsa’s vision of a golden age (satyug) was about a past where Mundas lived honestly, cultivated their own land, and were free from diku oppression. He described a time when tribals were self-sufficient, following their own religion and customs without interference from outsiders. This vision appealed to people because it promised to restore their ancestral rights and give them self-sufficiency. At a time when tribals faced exploitation from all sides, the idea of freedom from outsiders and return to their traditional way of life was very attractive. Birsa’s vision combined religious reform with political goals, giving hope to tribals who had lost their lands, freedom, and dignity under colonial rule. His promise to establish Munda Raj where tribals could govern themselves again was powerful for communities who felt powerless against colonial authorities and dikus.
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