This chapter explains about kings and kingdoms in India from the seventh to twelfth centuries. It shows how new families like Cholas and Rashtrakutas became rulers. We learn how they ran their kingdoms and collected taxes. They fought wars for wealth and built big temples too. It’s all about how power and life changed in those old times.
1. Introduction
- Major Kingdoms:
- New dynasties emerged after the seventh century
- Some big kingdoms were Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas, and Chahamanas (Chauhans).
- These kingdoms controlled different parts of India.
- Today, their areas match states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and others.
2. The Emergence of New Dynasties
- Big Landlords and Warriors:
- By the seventh century, big landlords and warrior chiefs grew strong in different regions.
- Kings saw them as helpers called samantas, who worked under them.
- Role of Samantas:
- Samantas brought gifts to their kings and joined them at court.
- They also gave military help when the king needed it.
- Samantas Gaining Power:
- As samantas got richer and stronger, they called themselves maha-samanta or maha-mandaleshvara.
- These titles mean great lord of a region, showing their power.
- Some samantas even broke free from their kings to rule on their own.
- Example: Rashtrakutas:
- The Rashtrakutas in the Deccan were once under the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
- In the mid-eighth century, their chief Dantidurga overthrew the Chalukya king.
- Dantidurga did a ritual called hiranya-garbha with Brahmanas’ help.
- This ritual was believed to make him a Kshatriya, even if he wasn’t born one.
- Example: Other Families:
- Kadamba Mayurasharman, a Brahmana, left his old job and started a kingdom in Karnataka.
- Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra, also a Brahmana, built a kingdom in Rajasthan.
3. Administration in the Kingdoms
- Titles of Kings:
- New kings took big titles like maharaja-adhiraja, meaning great king over other kings.
- Some used tribhuwana-chakravartin, meaning lord of the three worlds.
- Sharing Power:
- Even with big titles, kings shared power with samantas.
- They also worked with groups of peasants, traders, and Brahmanas.
- Resources:
- Kings got resources from peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans who made things.
- These people were asked or forced to give part of what they produced.
- Sometimes, lords called it “rent” because they said they owned the land.
- Traders also paid taxes to the kings.
- Many Taxes:
- The Cholas in Tamil Nadu had over 400 types of taxes.
- Vetti was a tax taken as forced labour, not money.
- Kadamai was a tax on land revenue paid by farmers.
- Other taxes were on things like house thatching or climbing palm trees.
- Using Resources:
- Kings used these resources to run their homes and offices.
- They built temples and forts with this money too.
- Wars were fought with it, hoping to win more land and wealth.
- Officers:
- People collecting taxes usually came from rich families.
- These jobs often stayed in the same family, passed from father to son.
- Army leaders were also from powerful families or the king’s relatives.
4. Prashastis and Land Grants
- What Are Prashastis:
- Prashastis are writings that praise kings, made by learned Brahmanas.
- They show how kings wanted to be seen, like brave and winning warriors.
- Brahmanas who wrote them sometimes helped run the kingdom too.
- Example: Nagabhata:
- A prashasti from Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, tells about Nagabhata, a Pratihara king.
- It says he beat kings of Andhra, Sind, Vidarbha (Maharashtra), and Kalinga (Orissa) as a prince.
- He also won against Chakrayudha, the ruler of Kanauj.
- Other victories were over kings of Bengal, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and forest peoples.
- Land Grants:
- Kings gave land to Brahmanas as rewards, written on copper plates.
- These plates showed who got the land and were marked with the king’s seal.
- What Came with Land:
- A Chola land grant lists what the land had, like fruit trees and gardens.
- It also had wells, pastures, villages, canals, and fish ponds.
- The person getting the land could collect taxes from it.
- Taxes included fines, cloth tax, vehicle tax, and betel-leaf tax.
- They could build houses, dig wells, and make canals.
- They had to save water and build strong embankments.
5. Warfare for Wealth
- Fighting for Control:
- Each dynasty had its own region but wanted to control more areas.
- Kanauj in the Ganga valley was a special place everyone fought for.
- Tripartite Struggle:
- Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Palas fought for Kanauj for centuries.
- Historians call this long fight the “tripartite struggle” because three groups were involved.
- Attacking Temples:
- Rulers showed power by building big temples full of wealth.
- When they attacked other kingdoms, they often looted these rich temples.
- Mahmud of Ghazni:
- Mahmud, a ruler from Afghanistan, raided India 17 times from 1000 to 1025.
- He attacked wealthy temples, like Somnath in Gujarat, for religious reasons.
- He took the riches back to Ghazni to build a grand capital city.
- Chahamanas:
- Chahamanas, later called Chauhans, ruled around Delhi and Ajmer.
- They tried to grow their land west and east.
- Chalukyas of Gujarat and Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh stopped them.
- Prithviraja III, a Chahamana king, beat Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191.
- But he lost to Ghori the next year, in 1192.
- Kalhana’s Work:
- A poet named Kalhana wrote a long Sanskrit poem in the twelfth century.
- It tells the history of Kashmir’s kings using many sources.
- Unlike prashastis, he sometimes criticised the rulers and their decisions.
6. The Cholas
- Rise of Cholas:
- The Cholas started as a small family from Uraiyur in Tamil Nadu.
- Vijayalaya took the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar in the ninth century.
- The Muttaraiyar were under the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram before this.
- Vijayalaya built Thanjavur town and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini.
- Growing Stronger:
- Vijayalaya’s family conquered nearby lands, making the kingdom bigger.
- They took over Pandyan and Pallava areas in the south and north.
- Rajaraja I became king in 985 and was the strongest Chola ruler.
- He made the empire even larger and improved how it was run.
- Rajendra I, his son, kept this going and attacked the Ganga valley.
- Rajendra also invaded Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia with a navy.
6.1 Temples and Crafts
- Chola Temples:
- Chola kings built big temples in Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram.
- These temples were not just for praying—they were town centres.
- Settlements grew around them with many workers living nearby.
- Workers included priests, cooks, musicians, dancers, and sweepers.
- Temples got land from kings and others to support these people.
- They were key for economic, social, and cultural life.
- Bronze Sculptures:
- Chola temples were famous for making bronze images.
- Most were of gods, but some showed devotees too.
- These sculptures are known as some of the best in the world.
6.2 Agriculture and Irrigation
- Farming Growth:
- The Cholas’ success came from better farming in Tamil Nadu.
- The Kaveri River splits into small channels before the Bay of Bengal.
- These channels flood often, leaving rich soil on their banks.
- The water helps grow rice and other crops.
- Opening New Land:
- Large-scale farming started in this area from the fifth or sixth century.
- Forests were cut down, and land was made flat for fields.
- In the delta, embankments stopped floods, and canals brought water.
- Farmers grew two crops a year in many places.
- Irrigation Methods:
- Wells were dug in some areas to water crops.
- Big tanks were made to store rainwater in others.
- Irrigation needed planning, labour, and sharing water fairly.
- Kings and villagers worked together on these projects.
6.3 Administration of the Empire
- Villages and Nadu:
- Farming made peasant settlements, called ur, rich and strong.
- Groups of villages formed bigger units called nadu.
- Village councils and nadu handled taxes and justice.
- Rich peasants controlled nadu affairs under the Chola government.
- Titles and Roles:
- Chola kings gave titles like muvendavelan to rich landowners.
- Another title was araiyar, meaning chief, as a mark of respect.
- These people got big jobs in the central government.
- Land Types:
- Vellanvagai was land owned by non-Brahmana farmers.
- Brahmadeya was land gifted to Brahmanas.
- Shalabhoga was land for running schools.
- Devadana and tirunamattukkani were lands for temples.
- Pallichchhandam was land given to Jaina institutions.
- Brahmana Settlements:
- Many Brahmanas got land grants called brahmadeya.
- This led to Brahmana villages growing in the Kaveri valley.
- Sabha System:
- Each brahmadeya had a sabha, an assembly of Brahmana landholders.
- The sabha managed irrigation, gardens, and temples efficiently.
- Traders’ groups called nagarams also helped run towns sometimes.
- Sabha Membership:
- To join a sabha, a person had to own taxable land.
- They needed their own house too.
- They had to be between 35 and 70 years old.
- Knowledge of Vedas and administration was required.
- They had to be honest in their work.
- If they served on a committee in the last three years, they couldn’t join again.
- They couldn’t run if they or their relatives hadn’t submitted accounts.
- Ordinary Life:
- The Periyapuranam, a Tamil work from the twelfth century, describes a Pulaiya hamlet.
- Pulaiyas were seen as outcastes by Brahmanas and Vellalas.
- They lived in small huts and worked as farm labourers.
- Kids played with puppies, and women sang while husking paddy.
- Chickens roamed, and drums hung from mango trees.
7. Questions and Answers
7.1 Let’s Recall
- Matching:
- Gurjara-Pratiharas ruled Gujarat and Rajasthan.
- Rashtrakutas controlled Western Deccan.
- Palas were in Bengal.
- Cholas ruled Tamil Nadu.
- Tripartite Struggle:
- Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Palas fought for Kanauj.
- These three parties were in a long conflict.
- Sabha Qualifications:
- Members needed to own land that paid revenue.
- They had to have their own homes.
- Age had to be between 35 and 70 years.
- They needed knowledge of Vedas and administration.
- Honesty was a must for them.
- No recent committee members could join again.
- They had to submit their accounts to qualify.
- Chahamana Cities:
- Delhi and Ajmer were the two major cities they controlled.
7.2 Let’s Understand
- Rashtrakutas’ Power:
- They started as subordinates to the Chalukyas in Karnataka.
- Dantidurga overthrew them and did the hiranya-garbha ritual.
- Gaining Acceptance:
- New dynasties took big titles like maharaja-adhiraja.
- They did rituals like hiranya-garbha to become Kshatriyas.
- They gave land to Brahmanas to show their power.
- Irrigation in Tamil Region:
- Wells were dug to bring water to fields.
- Tanks stored rainwater for farming.
- Canals carried water from rivers to crops.
- Embankments stopped flooding in the delta.
- Chola Temple Activities:
- Temples were places for worship and community life.
- They had workers like priests, cooks, and dancers.
- Craft production, like bronze sculptures, happened there.
- Land produce supported the temple staff.
Download Free Mind Map from the link below
This mind map contains all important topics of this chapter
Visit our Class 7 Our Pasts II page for free mind maps of all Chapters