Universal Franchise and India's Electoral System - Class 8 Free Notes and Mind Map (Free PDF Download)

Universal adult franchise is the cornerstone of Indian democracy that gives every citizen aged 18 and above the right to vote. This system ensures that all Indians can participate equally in choosing their representatives and shaping the country’s future. These notes will study all aspects of India’s electoral system, from voting rights to election processes and challenges.

Universal Adult Franchise

Definition and Core Principles

Universal adult franchise means every Indian citizen who is 18 years or above has the fundamental right to vote in elections. The word “universal” indicates that there is no discrimination based on any personal characteristics like caste, religion, gender, education, or wealth. This principle ensures that each person gets exactly one vote and all votes carry equal weight in determining election results.

Article 326 of the Indian Constitution guarantees this fundamental right to all eligible citizens. The system follows a strict rule that no one can vote on another person’s behalf – every voter must cast their own ballot personally.

Historical Context

Before India’s Independence in 1947, the voting system was very different and unfair. Only about 13% of Indians were allowed to vote under British rule. The franchise was not universal but was based on property ownership, education qualifications, or tax payment capacity, which excluded the vast majority of Indians.

India became one of the early nations to grant women voting rights from the very beginning of independence. This was quite progressive compared to many developed countries – for example, Switzerland gave women the right to vote only in 1971, more than 20 years after India.

The minimum voting age was originally set at 21 years, but this was reduced to 18 years in 1988 through the 61st Constitutional Amendment, allowing younger citizens to participate in democracy.

Importance of Universal Franchise

Universal adult franchise serves several imp purposes in a democracy:

Equality principle: Ensures that everyone is equal in democracy regardless of their background
Self-determination: Gives people the power to determine their own future through voting
Accountability: Makes elected representatives answerable to all people, not just wealthy elites
Voice to all: Enables everyone’s voice to matter in decision making processes
Civic engagement: Fosters active participation among all citizens in democratic processes
Local problem solving: Allows people to participate in solving problems in their local area
Social integration: Bridges social barriers through equal participation in elections
Future planning: Helps people decide what type of future they want for their community and country

Voter Eligibility and Requirements

To be eligible to vote in India, a person must meet specific requirements:

Requirement	Details
Citizenship	Must be an Indian citizen
Age	Must be 18 years or above on January 1st of the election year
Registration	Must be registered as a voter in their constituency
Mental capacity	Must not be of unsound mind (as declared by court)
Criminal record	Cannot vote if found guilty of certain serious crimes

The voter must be listed in the electoral register of their constituency to exercise their franchise. In the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, approximately 980 million voters were eligible to participate, making it the world’s largest democratic exercise.

Democratic Participation Scale

India has an extensive network of elected representatives across different levels:

Total elected representatives: 3.1 million across the country
Women representatives: 1.3 million out of the total
Local government bodies: More than 250,000 exist nationwide
Election coverage: All levels from national to local are democratically elected through universal adult franchise
Regular elections: Held for Lok Sabha, state assemblies, and local bodies at scheduled intervals

Types of Elections in India

Parliamentary Democracy Structure

India follows a parliamentary system of government that operates at three distinct levels – national, state, and local. Each level has different representatives with specific responsibilities, and citizens participate in various types of elections regularly to choose their representatives at each level.

The system ensures that people have a say in governance from the village level all the way up to the national government, creating multiple layers of democratic participation.

Direct Elections

In direct elections, citizens vote directly for their representatives without any intermediary. These elections include:

Lok Sabha elections: Voters choose Members of Parliament (MPs) to represent them in the national parliament
State Assembly elections: Voters choose Members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs) for their state governments
Local government elections: For gram panchayats in rural areas and municipal bodies in urban areas
Secret ballot system: All direct elections use secret ballot to ensure voter privacy and prevent coercion

In direct elections, voters directly select candidates of their choice, and the results immediately determine who will represent them in the respective legislative body.

Indirect Elections

In indirect elections, representatives elect other representatives rather than the general public voting directly. These elections include:

Rajya Sabha elections: MLAs of states elect Rajya Sabha members
Presidential elections: MPs and MLAs together elect the President of India
Vice Presidential elections: All MPs from both houses of Parliament elect the Vice President
Balanced representation: This system ensures balanced representation across different levels of government

The indirect election system helps maintain checks and balances in the democratic structure while ensuring that smaller states have adequate representation.

Constituency System

The entire country is divided into geographical areas called constituencies for election purposes:

Lok Sabha constituencies: 543 constituencies exist for Lok Sabha elections
Single representative: Each constituency elects exactly one representative to the respective legislative body
Population-based: Each state has multiple constituencies based on its population size
Fair boundaries: Constituency boundaries are determined by the Delimitation Commission to ensure fair representation
Regular review: Boundaries are reviewed periodically to account for population changes

India’s Electoral System

First-Past-the-Post System

India uses the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system for most of its elections, including Lok Sabha and State Assembly elections. Under this system:

Winner determination: The candidate with the highest number of votes wins the election
No absolute majority needed: The winner does not need an absolute majority (50%+1) of total votes
Simple and clear: It’s a simple system where the most votes determines victory
Quick results: Vote counting and result declaration is faster compared to other systems

For example, if there are three candidates A, B, and C getting 40%, 35%, and 25% votes respectively, candidate A wins even though they don’t have a majority.

Reserved Seats System

To ensure participation of historically disadvantaged groups, certain seats are reserved in the Lok Sabha:

Category	Number of Seats	Purpose
Scheduled Castes (SC)	84 seats	Ensure SC representation
Scheduled Tribes (ST)	47 seats	Ensure ST representation
General category	412 seats	Open to all communities
Total	543 seats	Complete Lok Sabha

This reservation system guarantees that Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, who faced historical discrimination, have adequate representation in Parliament proportional to their population.

Voting Process Steps

The voting process follows these systematic steps:

Verification: Voters check their name in the electoral list at the polling station
Identification: Present valid identification proof to polling officials
Indelible ink: Finger gets marked with indelible ink to prevent multiple voting
Documentation: Receive voting slip and sign the register
Voting: Vote is cast using Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs)
Verification: VVPAT (Voter Verified Paper Audit Trail) allows voters to verify their choice for 7 seconds
NOTA option: Voters can choose NOTA (None Of The Above) if dissatisfied with all candidates

Single Transferable Vote System

This more complex system is used in specific elections:

Used for: Rajya Sabha elections, Presidential elections, and Vice Presidential elections
Ranking system: Voters rank candidates by preference (1st choice, 2nd choice, etc.)
Fair representation: Ensures proportional representation for smaller states and communities
Complex counting: Vote counting involves multiple rounds with transfer of surplus votes
Balanced outcomes: Helps achieve balanced representation across different regions

The Election Commission of India (ECI)

Structure and Organization

The Election Commission of India is an independent constitutional body established in 1950 under Article 324 of the Constitution. Its structure includes:

Three-member body: Consists of Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners
Independent status: Completely independent from government influence in election matters
Constitutional backing: Powers and functions defined in the Constitution
Decision making: All major decisions taken collectively by the three-member commission

The ECI’s independence ensures that elections are conducted fairly without political interference from the ruling government.

Hierarchical Structure

The ECI operates through a well-organized hierarchy:

Level	Officer	Main Responsibilities
National	Chief Election Commissioner & Election Commissioners	Overall policy and supervision
State/UT	Chief Electoral Officer	State-level election management
District	District Election Officer	District-level operations and coordination
Constituency	Returning Officer	Conduct actual elections and counting
Polling Station	Presiding Officer & Polling Officers	Day-to-day election operations

This extensive network ensures smooth conduct of elections across the vast and diverse country.

Major Responsibilities

The Election Commission has numerous imp responsibilities:

Election scheduling: Setting dates for all elections across the country
Process monitoring: Overseeing the entire electoral process from start to finish
Party registration: Registering political parties and approving their symbols
Code enforcement: Implementing and monitoring Model Code of Conduct
Voter registration: Managing and updating voter registration lists regularly
Fair elections: Ensuring free, fair, and peaceful elections throughout India

Scope of ECI Authority

The Election Commission’s authority covers:

Central elections: Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha elections
State elections: All state legislative assembly elections
Presidential elections: Election of President and Vice President
Exclusions: Does not handle local body elections (managed by State Election Commissions)
Historical role: Conducted first general elections in 1951-1952

Accessibility Measures

The ECI has implemented various measures to ensure all citizens can vote:

Remote areas: Special arrangements for remote and geographically difficult locations
Home voting: Introduced for elderly (85+) and disabled persons in 2024
Postal voting: Available for armed forces, police, and other specific categories
Assistive technology: Braille voter cards provided for visually impaired voters
Physical accessibility: Wheelchairs, ramps, and volunteers arranged at polling stations
Inclusive approach: Innovative measures ensure no eligible voter is left behind

Technological Innovations

The ECI has embraced technology to improve election processes:

EVMs: Electronic Voting Machines used nationwide for faster and accurate voting
VVPAT: Voter Verified Paper Audit Trail provides paper verification of electronic votes
International sharing: Technology and expertise shared with countries like Namibia and Bhutan
Transparency: Makes voting and counting more efficient and transparent
Fraud reduction: Significantly reduces possibilities of electoral fraud and malpractices

Model Code of Conduct (MCC)

Purpose and Objectives

The Model Code of Conduct serves several critical purposes in ensuring democratic elections:

Free and fair elections: Ensures that all political parties and candidates compete on equal terms
Behavioral regulation: Regulates actions and speeches of political parties and candidates during election period
Power misuse prevention: Prevents ruling parties from misusing official resources and power
Peace maintenance: Maintains peace and order during the campaign period
Level playing field: Creates equal opportunities for all contestants regardless of their party affiliation

Imp Provisions

The MCC contains several strict provisions that all parties must follow:

No new announcements: Ruling party cannot announce new projects, policies, or schemes during election period
Resource restrictions: Government resources like vehicles, buildings, and staff cannot be used for campaign purposes
Behavioral guidelines: Candidates must exercise discretion and restraint in their speeches and actions
Gift prohibition: Influencing voters through gifts, money, or freebies is strictly prohibited
Language restrictions: Abusive, inflammatory, or communal language against opponents is not allowed
Official neutrality: Government officials cannot campaign for any political party

Violations and Examples

Common violations of MCC include:

Gift distribution: Distributing items like sarees, household appliances, or cash to influence voters
Hate speech: Using abusive, communal, or inflammatory language against political opponents
Official campaigning: Government officials actively campaigning for the ruling party
Cash carrying: Candidates or their supporters carrying large amounts of unexplained cash
Resource misuse: Using government vehicles, buildings, or staff for campaign activities

All such activities are considered violations of election conduct rules and can result in penalties.

Historical Development

The Model Code of Conduct has evolved over decades:

Kerala beginning: First used voluntarily in Kerala state elections in 1960
National expansion: Extended to all-India elections after 1962 general elections
Strict enforcement: Became strictly enforced from 1991 onwards
Seshan’s reforms: T.N. Seshan as Chief Election Commissioner made significant reforms in the 1990s
Modern precision: Brought precision rules for campaigning, voter IDs, and spending limits

T.N. Seshan’s Contributions

T.N. Seshan served as Chief Election Commissioner from 1990-1996 and made revolutionary changes:

Reform introduction: Introduced comprehensive reforms for free and fair elections
Campaign rules: Established precise rules for political campaigning and election expenses
Voter ID system: Implemented voter ID cards to eliminate proxy voting and multiple voting
Spending limits: Created strict spending limits for candidates to reduce money power
Fearless enforcement: Made Indian elections fairer, more transparent, and conducted without fear
Legacy impact: His reforms continue to influence election conduct even today

Understanding Elections in India

Lok Sabha Elections

Lok Sabha elections are often called the ‘Festival of Democracy’ and occur every five years:

Citizen participation: All eligible citizens exercise their right to choose representatives
Constituency division: Country is divided into 543 constituencies for this purpose
MP selection: Elected candidates become Members of Parliament (MPs)
Government formation: Party or coalition with majority forms the national government
Leadership: Leader of the majority party becomes the Prime Minister
National impact: These elections determine policies for the entire country

State Legislative Assembly Elections

State elections follow a similar process but operate at the state level:

State representation: Elected candidates become Members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs)
Different names: Assembly called Vidhan Sabha, Niyama Sabha, or other names in different states
State governance: Majority party or coalition forms the state government
Chief Minister: Leader of majority party becomes Chief Minister of the state
State issues: Focus on state-specific problems, policies, and development

Government Formation Process

The process of forming government follows democratic principles:

Majority requirement: Political party or coalition winning majority of seats forms government
Coalition concept: Coalition means group of two or more parties working together
National level: At national level, majority in Lok Sabha (272+ seats) forms central government
State level: At state level, majority in state assembly forms state government
Democratic mandate: The party with people’s support through elections gets to govern

Difference Between MP and MLA

Aspect	Member of Parliament (MP)	Member of Legislative Assembly (MLA)
Represents	Constituency in national parliament	Constituency in state assembly
Focus area	National issues affecting entire country	Regional and state-specific issues
Legislature	Works in Lok Sabha/Rajya Sabha	Works in State Legislative Assembly
Scope	Makes laws for whole country	Makes laws for specific state
Election frequency	Every 5 years (Lok Sabha)	Every 5 years (state-specific)

Both MPs and MLAs serve as bridges between people and government, representing citizen concerns at their respective levels.

Rajya Sabha Elections

Indirect Election Process

Rajya Sabha elections work differently from direct elections:

Indirect voting: Members elected by MLAs rather than direct public vote
Elected members: 233 members elected by state legislative assemblies across India
Nominated members: 12 members nominated by President for achievements in arts, science, literature
Total strength: Complete Rajya Sabha has 245 members
Example understanding: Like school council being elected by class representatives instead of all students

Representation System

The representation in Rajya Sabha ensures balanced participation:

Population-based: Each state gets seats based on its population size
Large state example: More populous states like Uttar Pradesh get 31 seats
Small state example: Less populous states like Sikkim get only 1 seat
Fair distribution: Ensures all states have representation proportional to their population
Demographic balance: System accounts for different sizes and populations of states

Permanent House Characteristics

Rajya Sabha has unique characteristics that make it different from Lok Sabha:

Never dissolved: Unlike Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha never gets completely dissolved
Six-year terms: Each member serves for six years
Rotation system: One-third of members retire every two years
Continuous renewal: New members elected to replace those who retire
Stability provision: Provides continuity and stability in the parliamentary system

Single Transferable Vote System

The Rajya Sabha uses a complex but fair voting system:

Preference ranking: MLAs rank candidates by preference order (1st choice, 2nd choice, etc.)
Fair representation: Special system ensures smaller states get adequate representation
Complex process: More complicated than simple majority system used in direct elections
Minority protection: Protects interests of less populous regions and communities
Advanced learning: Detailed mechanism of this system is studied in higher classes

Presidential and Vice Presidential Elections

Presidential Election Process

The President of India is not directly elected by the common people but through a special system:

Electoral College: President elected by an Electoral College consisting of elected representatives
Parliamentary participation: All elected MPs from both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha participate
State participation: All elected MLAs from states and union territories vote
Voting method: Single Transferable Vote system used for fair representation
Indirect democracy: Represents the will of people through their elected representatives

Electoral College Composition

The Electoral College for Presidential elections includes specific members:

Included in Electoral College	Excluded from Electoral College
All elected MPs (Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha)	12 nominated Rajya Sabha members
All elected MLAs (states + UTs)	Nominated MLAs (if any)
–	All MLCs (Legislative Council members)
–	Nominated members of Delhi & Puducherry

Only directly elected representatives participate to ensure democratic legitimacy.

Groups Excluded from Presidential Election

Several categories of representatives cannot vote in Presidential elections:

Nominated Rajya Sabha: 12 members nominated by President for special achievements
Nominated MLAs: Any MLAs who are nominated rather than elected (rare cases)
Legislative Council members: Both elected and nominated MLCs excluded from voting
UT nominated members: Nominated members of Delhi and Puducherry assemblies excluded
Rationale: Only directly elected representatives choose President to maintain democratic principle

Vice Presidential Election

The Vice President election has a different composition:

Participants: Elected by all MPs from both houses of Parliament
Inclusion: Both elected and nominated MPs participate (unlike Presidential election)
Voting method: Single Transferable Vote system used
Dual role: VP serves as ex-officio Chairperson of Rajya Sabha
Succession: Steps in when President is unable to discharge functions

Rationale for Indirect Elections

There are several logical reasons for indirect elections of President:

Democratic legitimacy: Ensures only directly elected representatives choose the Head of State
Federal balance: Maintains balance between central and state representation
Meaningful representation: President represents will of people indirectly but meaningfully
Population consideration: More populous states have greater say through vote value formula
System stability: Prevents direct populist appeals and maintains institutional dignity

Challenges and Road Ahead

Current Challenges

Indian democracy faces several modern challenges that need attention:

Money power: Growing influence of money in elections affects equal competition
Criminal candidates: Significant proportion of candidates have criminal backgrounds or pending cases
Urban apathy: Voter apathy particularly noticeable in urban areas
Low turnout: About 34% of eligible voters did not participate in 2024 Lok Sabha elections
Democratic health: These trends raise questions about the health and future of democracy

Urban Voter Turnout Issues

Urban areas show concerning trends in voter participation:

Declining participation: Consistent decline in voter turnout in city elections
Lifestyle factors: Busy work schedules and urban lifestyle contribute to low participation
Migration issues: Internal migration makes voter registration and voting difficult
Awareness gap: Lack of awareness about local issues and candidates
Trust deficit: Growing distrust in political system affects willingness to participate
Convenience barriers: Difficulty in taking time off work or traveling to native places for voting

Solutions and Way Forward

Several measures can improve the democratic process:

Voter education: Empowering voters with information for making thoughtful choices
Media campaigns: Targeted awareness campaigns through various media platforms
Youth engagement: Helping young people understand the importance of voting wisely
Civic education: Including democratic values and electoral awareness in school curricula
Information access: Providing easy access to candidate information and track records
Accountability systems: Creating mechanisms for citizens to track their representatives’ performance

Role of Technology and Social Media

Technology is transforming the electoral landscape:

Positive impacts:

Wider reach: Social media campaigns and live speeches reach more people quickly
Youth engagement: Digital platforms increase political awareness among young voters
Information access: Easy access to candidate information and party manifestos
Interactive democracy: Political debates and discussions on digital platforms
Real-time updates: Instant information about election processes and results

Challenges:

Fake news: Rapid spread of misinformation and fake news affects voter decisions
Polarization: Social media can increase political polarization and echo chambers
Manipulation: Possibility of foreign interference and data manipulation
Digital divide: Unequal access to technology affects information equality

Voter Education Importance

Educating voters is crucial for strengthening democracy:

Informed choices: Information campaigns help citizens make responsible voting decisions
Issue awareness: Education about local and national issues enables better candidate evaluation
Rights awareness: Understanding of democratic rights and responsibilities
Youth focus: Special attention to engaging young voters who will shape future democracy
Early start: Civic education should begin early in schools and continue through higher education
Community involvement: Local communities and organizations should participate in voter education

Questions and Answers

Q1: What is universal adult franchise and which article guarantees it?

Answer:

Universal adult franchise means every Indian citizen aged 18 and above has the right to vote
Article 326 of the Indian Constitution guarantees this fundamental right
It ensures no discrimination based on caste, religion, gender, education, or wealth
Each person gets one vote and all votes have equal value

Q2: Name the main responsibilities of the Election Commission of India.

Answer:

Setting dates and schedules for all elections across the country
Monitoring the entire electoral process from start to finish
Registering political parties and approving their election symbols
Enforcing and implementing Model Code of Conduct during elections
Managing and updating voter registration lists regularly
Ensuring free, fair, and peaceful elections throughout India

Q3: Why does India use the First-Past-the-Post system for Lok Sabha elections?

Answer:

It is simple and easy to understand for voters
Vote counting and result declaration is faster
Suitable for single-member constituencies
Provides clear winners even in multi-candidate contests
Has been working effectively since independence

Q4: Which house of Parliament never gets dissolved and what is its term structure?

Answer:

Rajya Sabha never gets completely dissolved unlike Lok Sabha
Each member serves for six years
One-third of members retire every two years
New members are elected to replace retiring ones
This provides continuity and stability in the parliamentary system

Q5: List three imp provisions of the Model Code of Conduct.

Answer:

Ruling party cannot announce new projects, policies, or schemes during election period
Government resources like vehicles, buildings, and staff cannot be used for campaigning
Distribution of gifts, money, or freebies to influence voters is strictly prohibited
Abusive, inflammatory, or communal language against opponents is not allowed
Government officials cannot campaign for any political party

Q6: Who elects the President of India and through which system?

Answer:

An Electoral College comprising elected MPs of both houses and elected MLAs of all states
Single Transferable Vote system is used for the election
Nominated members of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies cannot vote
Only directly elected representatives participate in Presidential election
System ensures balanced representation between center and states

Q7: Give two main reasons for low urban voter turnout.

Answer:

Busy work schedules and lifestyle factors that make voting difficult
Migration from native places making voter registration and voting complicated
Lack of trust and interest in political system and candidates
Difficulty in taking time off from work for voting

Q8: What voting system is used for Rajya Sabha elections?

Answer:

Single Transferable Vote system with proportional representation
MLAs rank candidates by preference order
Ensures fair representation for smaller states
More complex than First-Past-the-Post system
Protects interests of less populous regions

Q9: How many Lok Sabha seats are reserved for Scheduled Tribes?

Answer:

47 seats are reserved for Scheduled Tribes in Lok Sabha
84 seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes
412 seats remain in general category
Total Lok Sabha has 543 seats
Reservation ensures proportional representation of disadvantaged groups

Q10: Mention two accessibility measures taken by ECI for elderly and disabled voters.

Answer:

Home voting facility introduced in 2024 for voters aged 85 and above
Wheelchairs, ramps, and volunteer assistance arranged at polling stations
Braille voter ID cards provided for visually impaired voters
Postal voting facility for certain categories including disabled persons
Special arrangements ensure no eligible voter is left behind

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