India is the 7th largest country in the world, is known for its geographical diversity. As Sri Aurobindo said, “To us, by its very geography, the country [India] appears to be quite distinct from other countries, and that itself gives it a certain national character.”
When Rakesh Sharma, the first Indian astronaut to go into space, was asked how India looked from space by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, he replied, “Sāre jahān se achchha” — better than the whole world.
Introduction to India’s Geography
India is part of Asia and together with its neighbours — Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar — forms the Indian Subcontinent. For discussion purposes, we often divide India into five regions:
- The great mountain zone
- The Gangetic and Indus plains
- The desert region
- The southern peninsula
- The islands
The Himalayan Mountain range acts as a natural barrier in the north, while the Thar Desert and Arabian Sea mark western limits. The Indian Ocean to the south and Bay of Bengal to the east form natural boundaries. These geographical features create separation between India and rest of the continent and have played crucial role in shaping India’s climate, culture and history.
The Himalayas
The Himalayan Range is barrier extending from northern to eastern India. The word ‘Himalaya’ comes from two Sanskrit words — hima (snow) and ālaya (abode), meaning “abode of snow”. It extends about 2500 km in length. Many of its peaks rise over 8000 metres in height, collectively called the ‘Eight Thousanders’. This mountain range stretches across six countries: India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
During summer, melting snow feeds major rivers like the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra. These rivers and their tributaries provide water for drinking, farming, and industrial use for hundreds of millions of people. Due to this, the Himalayas are sometimes called the ‘Water Tower of Asia’.
The Himalayas are imp to many cultures and belief systems. The mountains themselves are considered sacred, with temples and monasteries built within them attracting monks and spiritual seekers worldwide.
How the Himalayas were formed
Long ago, India was part of a bigger landmass called ‘Gondwana’ where its neighbour was Africa! It eventually broke away and moved northward. About 50 million years ago, it merged with Eurasia. As India pushed against Eurasia, the land between them crumpled and rose up — similar to how a carpet wrinkles when pushed. This formed the mighty Himalayas.
India is still pushing into Asia today at about five centimetres each year (slower than hair growth). This means the Himalayas continue growing taller by about five millimetres annually, which adds up to five metres over a millennium.
The Three Ranges of the Himalayas
- The Himadri (Greater Himalayas) – The highest peaks and home to Mount Everest and Kanchenjunga. This region remains snow-covered throughout the year with few human settlements due to harsh conditions.
- The Himachal (Lower Himalayas) – Located south of the Greater Himalayas with more moderate climate, allowing rich biodiversity and human habitation. Popular hill stations like Nainital (Uttarakhand), Darjeeling (West Bengal), Shimla (Himachal Pradesh), and Mussoorie (Uttarakhand) are found here.
- The Shivalik Hills (Outer Himalayas) – The outermost and lowest range with rolling hills and dense forests. These foothills are rich in wildlife and serve as transition zone between Himalayas and Gangetic Plains.
The traditional house construction in western Himalayan region is known as ‘kath-kuni’ or ‘dhajji-dewari’ style. These houses use locally available stone and wood, keeping them warm and resistant to mild earthquakes.
The Great Himalayan National Park in Himachal Pradesh has wide biodiversity of flora and fauna. It has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site, preserved by government and village communities living inside the park.
The Cold Desert of India
Ladakh is India’s cold desert where winter temperatures drop below –30°C. Unlike hot deserts, there is very little rainfall, and the landscape is rugged with rocky terrain, deep valleys, and lakes such as Pangong Tso (tso means lake).
The terrain here resembles the moon’s surface, earning it the nickname ‘moonland’. This formed when Indian landmass collided with Eurasia, creating folded mountains from what was once ocean floor. Wind and rain have eroded the mountains into their current shapes.
Despite harsh conditions, Ladakh is home to unique wildlife like snow leopards, ibex, and Tibetan antelopes. Ladakhi people lead simple lives, and the region is known for ancient monasteries and colourful festivals like Losar and Hemis Festival.
The Gangetic Plains
Moving southwards from Himalayas, we reach the vast and fertile Gangetic Plains. These plains have been imp in India’s history and civilisation. They are nourished by mighty rivers originating from Himalayas, providing vital water.
The Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra rivers, along with their tributaries, replenish the soil with minerals, making the plains fertile and ideal for agriculture. Rivers also generate electricity. A large proportion of India’s population lives in these plains.
The plain land has allowed for development of transportation networks. Road and railway systems facilitate movement of people and goods. The Ganga, Brahmaputra, and other rivers have been used for millennia for travel and trade.
It’s interesting to note that most rivers are named after goddesses — Ganga, Yamuna, Kaveri, etc. The Brahmaputra, however, means ‘son of Brahma’ and uniquely gets bigger during summer instead of drying up.
The Great Indian Desert or Thar Desert
Moving westward, we encounter the Thar Desert, characterized by vast stretches of golden sand dunes, rugged terrain, and wide-open skies. Sand dunes form when wind shifts and shapes sand into hill-like formations, sometimes rising as high as 150 metres.
The Thar is a vast arid region mostly within India, spanning Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana. The desert acts as natural barrier due to harsh conditions that deter movement — including very high daytime temperatures, cold nights, and lack of water access.
People living in Thar have adapted their lifestyle to local conditions; food habits, clothing and way of life suit these harsh conditions.
Water is scarce in desert. Women often travel long distances daily to fetch water. The traditional method for cleaning utensils involves scouring them with sand until clean, with minimal water used for rinsing. This rinse water is reused for purposes like watering plants. Rajasthan is famous for ingenious water conservation methods, including taanka or kunds — special water collection systems storing rainwater.
The Aravalli Hills
The Aravallis are among world’s oldest mountains, approximately 2.5 billion years old! The range has many peaks and ridges. Though its highest peak, Mount Abu, reaches over 1700 m, most hills are between 300-900 metres high. It’s fascinating that just 4.5 hours drive can take you from Mount Abu to Jodhpur in Thar Desert, into completely different geography!
The range spans Delhi, Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat. Aravallis play vital role in shaping geography and climate of northwestern India, notably acting as natural barrier preventing Thar Desert from expanding eastward.
Rich in minerals like marble, granite, zinc, and copper, Aravallis have supported mining and construction for centuries. Evidence from ancient mines at Zawar shows that over eight centuries ago, Indians were first in world to master zinc extraction. Historic forts like Chittorgarh, Kumbhalgarh, and Ranthambore are located here.
The Peninsular Plateau
A plateau is landform rising from surrounding area with relatively flat surface and often steep sides. India has several plateaus; most imp is triangular peninsular area in central and southern India.
It’s a very old land formation! Since this region is peninsula (surrounded by water on three sides by Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and Indian Ocean), it’s called peninsular plateau.
The plateau is bordered by two mountain ranges: Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. Western Ghats are taller and run along western coast like wall, with beautiful waterfalls flowing down steep sides during monsoon. They’re UNESCO World Heritage Site, home to many rivers and rich biodiversity. Northern portion of Western Ghats are known as Sahyadri Hills.
Eastern Ghats are lower and broken into smaller hills along eastern coast. Between these ranges lies Deccan Plateau, vast area of flat highlands.
Rivers like Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri flow across plateau from west to east, providing water to millions and supporting agriculture.
The plateau is rich in minerals, forests, and fertile land, making it vital for India’s economy. It tilts slightly eastward, so many rivers flow toward Bay of Bengal. East-flowing rivers like Godavari, Krishna, and Mahanadi provide water for farming, industries, and hydroelectric power. West-flowing rivers (Narmada, Tapti) drain into Arabian Sea.
Dense forests on plateau are home to tribal communities including Santhal, Gond, Baiga, Bhil, and Korku. These tribes have distinct languages, traditions, and lifestyles closely connected to Nature. Tribal communities are largely spread over Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Gujarat.
The plateaus host many beautiful waterfalls as rivers flow over uneven rocky surfaces. These waterfalls attract tourists and help generate hydroelectric power and water for irrigation.
India’s Amazing Coastlines
India’s coastline stretches over 7500 km and features beautiful beaches, rocky cliffs, and lush green forests. Some beaches have golden sand while others have black rocks. Some islands have coral reefs while others are covered in thick jungles.
The West Coast of India
The West Coast stretches from Gujarat to Kerala, passing through Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. Most rivers here originate in Western Ghats, flow swiftly, and form estuaries. The coastline is shaped by alluvial deposits from short rivers and features coves, creeks, and estuaries, with Narmada and Tapti estuaries being largest.
The west coast has many imp ports and cities that have been centers of economic activity for millennia.
The East Coast
The East Coast lies between Eastern Ghats and Bay of Bengal, stretching from Ganga delta to Kanyakumari. It has wide plains and major river deltas, including Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri. Important water bodies like Chilika Lake and Pulicat Lake (a lagoon) are found here.
Deltas form at river mouths when sediments deposit into larger water bodies. Over time, these build up into triangular or fan-shaped areas. The Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Mahanadi rivers create fertile deltas ideal for farming.
Indian Islands
Indian Islands refer to groups scattered across Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal within India’s territory. There are two major island groups — Lakshadweep in Arabian Sea and Andaman and Nicobar Islands in Bay of Bengal. These islands feature unique wildlife, beautiful beaches, coral reefs, and volcanoes. Several ancient tribes made these islands their home thousands of years ago.
Lakshadweep Islands
Lakshadweep is archipelago (group of islands) in Arabian Sea, close to Kerala’s Malabar coast. It consists of 36 coral islands, not all inhabited. India controls vast marine area around them, allowing fishing, resource exploration, and environmental protection.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
This archipelago comprises more than 500 large and small volcanic islands, divided into Andaman and Nicobar groups. Their strategic location makes them like outposts watching over ocean. They host diverse flora and fauna.
The Andaman Islands have historical significance — many freedom fighters were imprisoned there under severe conditions in ‘Cellular Jail’ complex, preserved today as reminder of sacrifices for independence.
Barren Island in Andaman and Nicobar Islands is India’s only active volcano, occasionally erupting with smoke and lava.
The Delta in West Bengal and the Sundarbans
Traveling back from islands towards eastern Himalayas via Bay of Bengal, we reach Sundarbans in delta of Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries. This delta features unique combination of river, sea and land. About half is in India, remainder in Bangladesh. This UNESCO Heritage site is home to many species, including Royal Bengal Tiger.
The Hills of the Northeast
The northeastern hills, including Garo, Khasi, and Jantia, are part of Meghalaya Plateau. They’re known for lush greenery, heavy rainfall, and breathtaking waterfalls. This region experiences some of world’s highest rainfall, making it rich in forests, unique wildlife, and fertile land.
Mawlynnong Village in East Khasi Hills of Meghalaya is known as ‘cleanest village in Asia’. This picturesque village is famous for well-maintained cleanliness, bamboo dustbins, and eco-friendly living. It’s also known for living root bridges, created by weaving tree roots over many years.
Questions and activities
- What, in your opinion, are two important geographical features of India? Why do you think they are important?
- The Himalayas are imp geographical feature of India because they act as natural barrier protecting from cold winds from north, source of perennial rivers that provide water for irrigation and daily use, home to diverse flora and fauna, and have cultural significance as many sacred places located there.
- The rivers systems are another imp feature as they form fertile plains supporting agriculture and dense population, provide water for drinking and irrigation, generate hydroelectricity, and have been historically imp for transportation and trade.
- What do you think India might have looked like if the Himalayas did not exist?
- Without Himalayas, India would have much different climate with cold Siberian winds directly reaching plains making them colder and drier.
- The monsoon pattern would be drastically affected leading to less rainfall across northern India.
- Major rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra wouldn’t exist in current form as they originate from Himalayan glaciers.
- Northern plains would be less fertile with different agriculture patterns.
- Cultural development would have taken different path without sacred mountain sites.
- India would be more accessible to invasions from north.
- Biodiversity would be significantly different without unique Himalayan ecosystems.
- India has been called a ‘mini-continent’. Based on what you’ve read, why do you think this is so?
- India features nearly all major landforms found across continents – mountains, plains, plateaus, deserts, islands, and coastlines all within single country.
- It has diverse climate zones from cold desert of Ladakh to tropical rainforests in Northeast and Western Ghats, from arid Thar Desert to humid coastal regions.
- The biodiversity is comparable to entire continents with thousands of unique species.
- Cultural diversity rivals entire continents with hundreds of languages, various religions and distinct cultural practices.
- Geographic features create natural divisions similar to continental boundaries.
- Diverse agricultural zones support different crops and farming practices like larger continents.
- Follow one of India’s big rivers from where it starts to where it meets the ocean. What are the different ways in which people might utilise this river along its journey?
- In upper mountainous regions, rivers provide hydroelectric power generation through dams and power plants.
- For religious purposes, many rivers considered sacred with temples built along banks and religious rituals performed in waters.
- Agriculture depends on river water for irrigation through canals and traditional water lifting methods.
- Drinking water source for millions of people living along river banks and nearby areas.
- Transportation through boats and ferries especially in plains and delta regions.
- Fishing communities depend on rivers for livelihood catching various fish species.
- Industries use river water for manufacturing processes and cooling.
- Tourism activities like river rafting in upper reaches and boat tours in plains.
- Cultural significance with festivals and traditional practices centered around rivers.
- In delta regions, rivers create fertile land for intensive agriculture and aquaculture.
- Why is the southern part of India referred to as a peninsular plateau?
- The southern part of India is referred to as peninsular plateau because it’s elevated landform with relatively flat top and steep edges surrounded by water on three sides – Arabian Sea on west, Indian Ocean to south, and Bay of Bengal on east making it peninsula.
- It’s ancient geological formation dating back billions of years composed of hard crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks.
- The plateau is tilted slightly eastward causing most rivers to flow towards Bay of Bengal.
- It’s bordered by Western Ghats on west side and Eastern Ghats on east creating distinctive triangular shape.
- Unlike northern plains which are alluvial and formed recently, peninsular plateau is old, stable landmass that has experienced weathering for millions of years.
- Which UNESCO Heritage Site mentioned in this chapter did you find more interesting?
- The Western Ghats UNESCO Heritage Site is most interesting because it’s one of world’s biodiversity hotspots with extraordinary range of flora and fauna including many species found nowhere else on Earth.
- The mountains are older than Himalayas at over 150 million years and influence Indian monsoon weather patterns that affect agriculture and life across subcontinent.
- They feature living bridges created by interweaving tree roots, showing human adaptation to environment.
- The region contains examples of evolution and biological processes with over 5000 flowering plant species and hundreds of globally threatened animal species.
- Western Ghats demonstrate natural beauty with numerous waterfalls, dense forests and remarkable landscapes.
- The area represents important habitat for conservation of biodiversity with many endemic species facing threats from development.
- Look at the two maps of India, physical as well as political. Identify the place you are at now. Which physical feature of India would you use to describe its location?
- If located in northern India, position could be described relative to Gangetic plains, mentioning distance from Himalayas or specific rivers.
- For western Indian location, reference could be made to proximity to Thar Desert, Aravalli Range, or western coastal plains.
- Southern Indian location might be described in relation to Deccan Plateau, Western or Eastern Ghats, or specific coastal region.
- Eastern Indian position could reference proximity to Eastern Ghats, Bay of Bengal, or delta regions like Sundarbans.
- Central Indian location might be identified by position on Deccan Plateau or proximity to major rivers like Narmada.
- For northeastern locations, reference to specific hills of Northeast like Khasi Hills or proximity to Brahmaputra River valley would be appropriate.
- Food preservation techniques differ from place to place across India. They are adapted to local conditions.
- In desert regions like Rajasthan, sun-drying is common method for preserving vegetables, fruits, and even meats due to intense heat and sunshine.
- Coastal areas traditionally preserve fish through salting, drying, and smoking techniques to prevent spoilage in humid conditions.
- In northeastern states, fermentation is widely used preservation method for bamboo shoots, soybeans, and vegetables due to high humidity.
- Pickling using oil and spices is common across India but recipes vary by region based on available ingredients and climate conditions.
- In mountain regions, smoking and drying meats help preserve protein sources through long winters when fresh food is scarce.
- Southern states use techniques like sun-drying coconut, making papads and vadams (dried lentil preparations) during summer for use throughout year.
- Northern plains traditionally use techniques like making kanji (fermented carrot drink) to preserve vegetables during winter months.
- Western India has traditions like making papdi (dried flat beans) and other sun-dried vegetables during peak harvest seasons.
- Despite having such different regions (mountains, deserts, plains, coasts), India remains one country. How do you think our geography has helped unite people?
- Natural barriers like Himalayas and oceans created defined territorial space leading to shared identity within these boundaries.
- River systems connecting different regions facilitated trade, cultural exchange and communication between diverse groups.
- Diverse geography encouraged regional interdependence as resources from different regions complemented each other.
- Seasonal migration patterns due to geographical conditions fostered cultural exchange and understanding between communities.
- Agricultural practices adapted to different geographical zones led to diverse cuisines but common agricultural festivals.
- Trade routes determined by geography connected distant regions creating economic ties.
- Pilgrim routes to sacred sites across different geographical zones promoted cultural integration.
- Shared response to geographical challenges like monsoons created common cultural practices across regions.
- Defense against external threats was organized along geographical barriers creating common military and political systems.
- Administrative systems evolved to govern diverse regions while maintaining unity.
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