This chapter tells how regional cultures grew in India. It starts with languages like Malayalam in Kerala with the Cheras. Then it shows how rulers shaped cultures, like Jagannatha in Orissa and Rajputs in Rajasthan. It also covers arts like Kathak dance, miniatures, and Bengal’s language and temples. All these came from mixing local and outside ways over time.
1. Introduction to Regional Cultures
- How We Describe People:
- We often describe people by the language they speak.
- For example, a Tamil speaks Tamil and lives in Tamil Nadu.
- Things Linked to Regions:
- Each region has its own food, clothes, and arts.
- Poetry, dance, music, and painting are also special to regions.
- Changing Regions:
- The lines dividing regions have changed over time.
- These lines are still shifting even today.
- Mixing of Cultures:
- Today’s regional cultures come from mixing local ways with others.
- Ideas from different parts of India blended together.
- Variety in Traditions:
- Some traditions seem unique to one region.
- Others look similar across many regions.
- Some old local practices took new shapes elsewhere.
2. The Cheras and Malayalam Language
- Chera Kingdom’s Start:
- The Chera kingdom began in the 9th century.
- It was in south-west India, now part of Kerala.
- Malayalam’s Early Use:
- People likely spoke Malayalam in this area.
- Chera rulers used Malayalam in their writings.
- Official Language Use:
- This was one of the first times a regional language was official.
- They wrote inscriptions in Malayalam script.
- Mixing with Sanskrit:
- Cheras also followed Sanskrit traditions.
- Temple theatre in Kerala used Sanskrit epic stories.
- First Malayalam Works:
- The earliest Malayalam books came in the 12th century.
- These books were based on Sanskrit ideas.
- Manipravalam Text:
- In the 14th century, a book called Lilatilakam was written.
- It mixed Sanskrit and Malayalam, called Manipravalam.
- Meaning of Manipravalam:
- Manipravalam means “diamonds and corals.”
- It shows the blend of two languages together.
3. Rulers and the Jagannatha Cult
- Jagannatha in Puri:
- Jagannatha is a form of Vishnu, meaning lord of the world.
- This cult grew in Puri, Orissa.
- Tribal Roots:
- Local tribal people made the wooden idol of Jagannatha.
- This shows he was first a tribal god, later linked to Vishnu.
- Temple by Anantavarman:
- In the 12th century, Ganga ruler Anantavarman built a temple.
- It was for Purushottama Jagannatha in Puri.
- Anangabhima’s Dedication:
- In 1230, King Anangabhima III gave his kingdom to Jagannatha.
- He called himself the deputy of the god.
- Temple’s Growing Power:
- The temple became a big pilgrimage centre.
- It also gained power in social and political matters.
- Control by Conquerors:
- Mughals, Marathas, and the English tried to control the temple.
- They wanted local people to accept their rule.
4. Rajputs and Heroic Traditions
- Rajputana Name:
- In the 19th century, the British called Rajasthan Rajputana.
- This name linked it mostly to Rajputs.
- Rajputs Across India:
- Rajputs lived in many parts of north and central India.
- Rajasthan had other people too, not just Rajputs.
- Rajput Culture:
- Rajputs shaped Rajasthan’s special culture.
- Their ways became well-known there.
- Rulers from 8th Century:
- From the 8th century, Rajput families ruled Rajasthan.
- Prithviraj was one famous Rajput ruler.
- Heroic Ideals:
- Rajputs loved the idea of brave heroes.
- They chose death in battle over losing.
- Songs and Poems:
- Stories of Rajput heroes were told in poems and songs.
- Special singers called minstrels shared these tales.
- Inspiring Others:
- These stories kept the memory of heroes alive.
- They pushed others to be brave like them.
- Emotions in Stories:
- The tales showed loyalty, love, and anger.
- Ordinary people loved these exciting stories.
- Women in Tales:
- Some stories showed women following brave husbands.
- They told of sati, where widows died on funeral pyres.
5. The Story of Kathak Dance
- Kathak’s Meaning:
- Kathak comes from “katha,” meaning story in Sanskrit.
- It started with storytellers in north India temples.
- Early Storytellers:
- Kathaks were a group who told stories.
- They added actions and songs to their tales.
- Bhakti Movement Changes:
- In the 15th and 16th centuries, Kathak became a dance.
- It grew with the bhakti movement’s spread.
- Radha-Krishna Plays:
- Folk plays called rasa lila acted out Radha-Krishna stories.
- These mixed folk dance with kathak moves.
- Mughal Court Dance:
- Mughal emperors and nobles supported Kathak.
- It became a court dance with a special style.
- Two Traditions:
- Kathak split into Jaipur and Lucknow styles.
- Wajid Ali Shah, Nawab of Awadh, helped it grow.
- Spread by 19th Century:
- By the late 1800s, Kathak reached Punjab and Bihar.
- It became known in many north India areas.
- Dance Features:
- Kathak focused on fast footwork and costumes.
- It also acted out stories beautifully.
- British Views:
- British rulers didn’t like Kathak much.
- But courtesans kept it alive during that time.
- Classical Status:
- After independence, Kathak became a “classical” dance.
- It’s one of six main classical dances in India.
- Other Classical Dances:
- Bharatanatyam is from Tamil Nadu.
- Kathakali comes from Kerala.
- Odissi is from Odisha.
- Kuchipudi is from Andhra Pradesh.
- Manipuri comes from Manipur.
6. What Makes a Dance Classical?
- Defining Classical:
- It’s hard to say what makes a dance “classical.”
- We need to think about this carefully.
- Possible Reasons:
- Some say it’s classical if it’s about religion.
- Others think it needs years of training.
- It might be classical if it follows strict rules.
- Folk vs Classical:
- Folk dances also have some classical traits.
- Calling something classical doesn’t always mean it’s better.
7. Miniature Painting Tradition
- What Are Miniatures:
- Miniatures are small paintings on cloth or paper.
- They were first done on palm leaves or wood.
- Early Miniatures:
- The oldest ones were in western India.
- They were used for Jaina religious texts.
- Mughal Patrons:
- Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan supported painters.
- They painted history and poetry books.
- Mughal Style:
- Paintings had bright colours and court scenes.
- They showed battles, hunts, and daily life.
- Exclusive Viewing:
- Only the emperor and close friends saw these.
- They were often given as gifts.
- After Mughal Decline:
- Painters moved to regional courts like Deccan and Rajasthan.
- Mughal styles mixed with local ways there.
- Regional Themes:
- Rajput courts painted rulers and myths.
- Places like Mewar and Jodhpur had their own styles.
- Himalayan Miniatures:
- By the late 1600s, Basohli style grew in Himachal Pradesh.
- It was bold and strong in its look.
- Kangra School:
- After Nadir Shah’s attack in 1739, artists moved to Kangra.
- By the mid-1700s, Kangra style used soft blues and greens.
- Kangra Inspiration:
- Kangra paintings were based on Vaishnavite stories.
- They had a gentle and poetic feel.
- Ordinary People’s Art:
- Common people painted on pots and walls.
- These artworks were not kept like palace miniatures.
8. Bengal’s Regional Culture
8.1 Growth of Bengali Language
- Bengali Today:
- We think Bengal always spoke Bengali.
- But it wasn’t always like that long ago.
- Early Bengal Language:
- Around 500 BCE, Bengal didn’t use Sanskrit languages.
- People spoke something different then.
- Sanskrit Influence:
- From 400-300 BCE, trade with Magadha brought Sanskrit.
- Gupta rulers in the 4th century settled Brahmanas there.
- Spread of Sanskrit:
- By the 7th century, Sanskrit-like languages were common.
- Traveller Xuan Zang noted this in Bengal.
- Pala Kingdom:
- From the 8th century, Palas ruled Bengal.
- It became a strong regional centre then.
- Sultan Rule:
- Between the 14th and 16th centuries, Sultans ruled Bengal.
- They were free from Delhi’s control.
- Mughal Bengal:
- In 1586, Akbar conquered Bengal.
- It became part of the Bengal suba.
- Bengali Development:
- Persian was used for Mughal rule.
- But Bengali grew as the regional language.
- Unified Bengali:
- By the 15th century, Bengali dialects joined together.
- It was based on west Bengal’s spoken words.
- Mix of Words:
- Bengali took words from tribal languages.
- It also added Persian and European words.
8.2 Bengali Literature
- Two Types of Literature:
- Bengali writings split into two kinds.
- One was linked to Sanskrit, the other was not.
- Sanskrit-Based Works:
- These included translations of Sanskrit epics.
- Mangalakavyas were poems about local gods.
- Bhakti stories like Chaitanyadeva’s life were written.
- Independent Works:
- Nath songs told of Maynamati and Gopichandra.
- Stories of Dharma Thakur worship were popular.
- Fairy tales and folk ballads were also common.
- Dating the Works:
- Sanskrit-based texts were written from the 15th to 18th centuries.
- Independent ones were spoken and hard to date.
- Eastern Bengal Popularity:
- The second type was big in east Bengal.
- Brahmanas had less power there.
8.3 Pirs and Temples
- Migration to East Bengal:
- From the 16th century, people moved to south-east Bengal.
- They cleared forests for rice farming.
- Mixing Communities:
- Local fishers and tribals joined new farmers.
- They became one big group over time.
- Mughal Control:
- Mughals took Bengal with Dhaka as the centre.
- Officials built mosques for religious change.
- Role of Pirs:
- Pirs were leaders who guided new settlers.
- They taught, judged, and had special powers.
- Who Were Pirs:
- Pirs could be Sufis, saints, or brave settlers.
- They included Hindu, Buddhist, and animist spirits.
- Pir Shrines:
- People loved pirs and built shrines for them.
- These are found all over Bengal today.
- Temple Building:
- From the late 15th century, temples grew in Bengal.
- This continued till the 19th century.
- Why Temples Were Built:
- Powerful people made temples to show strength.
- They also wanted to show their faith.
- Support from Low Groups:
- Groups like oil pressers and metal workers built temples.
- European trade helped them grow rich.
- Temple Style:
- Temples copied thatched huts’ double or four roofs.
- This became the Bengali temple look.
- Temple Features:
- They were built on square bases.
- Outer walls had paintings and terracotta art.
- Vishnupur Excellence:
- In Vishnupur, Bankura, temple art was very fine.
- It showed great skill in decoration.
8.4 Fish as Food
- Bengal’s Food:
- Bengal grows lots of rice and fish.
- These are key foods for even poor people.
- Fishing’s Importance:
- Fishing was a big job in Bengal.
- Old writings often talk about fish.
- Fish in Art:
- Temple walls showed fish being prepared.
- This showed how common fish was.
- Brahmana Rules Change:
- Brahmanas usually didn’t eat meat.
- But in Bengal, they allowed some fish.
- Sanskrit Text Allowance:
- The Brihaddharma Purana, from the 13th century, said it’s okay.
- It let Bengal Brahmanas eat certain fish.
9. Questions and Answers
9.1 Let’s Recall
- Matching:
- Anantavarman built a temple in Orissa.
- Jagannatha is worshipped in Puri.
- Mahodayapuram was in Kerala.
- Lilatilakam was written in Manipravalam in Kerala.
- Mangalakavya is a poem from Bengal.
- Manipravalam:
- Manipravalam mixes Sanskrit and Malayalam.
- Lilatilakam is a book in this language.
- Kathak Patrons:
- Mughal emperors supported Kathak.
- Wajid Ali Shah, Nawab of Awadh, was a big patron.
- Bengal Temple Features:
- Temples had double or four roofs like huts.
- They were on square platforms with decorated walls.
9.2 Let’s Discuss
- Minstrels’ Role:
- Minstrels sang about Rajput heroes’ brave acts.
- This inspired people to follow their example.
- More About Rulers:
- Rulers left records of their culture.
- Ordinary people’s ways were less written down.
- Jagannatha Temple Control:
- Conquerors wanted the temple to win local trust.
- It had big social and political power.
- Why Temples in Bengal:
- Temples showed the builder’s power and faith.
- Low groups built them as their wealth grew.
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